Francis Skaryna (c. 1490 - c. 1541) was born in Polotsk, into an Orthodox merchant family. Upon baptism he received the name George. As for the name Francis, V.V. Agievich, in our opinion, convincingly proved in his publications that it is his literary pseudonym, which Skaryna received when joining the printers' guild 1.
Skaryna received his initial education at the Bernardine monastery. Then, like many young people of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, thirsty for knowledge, he studied at the University of Krakow at the Faculty of Liberal Arts (as the philosophical faculties were then called), where professors were such famous philosophers in Poland as Michael Wratislavsky (1488-1512) and John Glogowski ( 1487 - 1506). The university course lasted two years, during which the works of Aristotle were studied, whose teaching was preferred in medieval universities. In the first year, students, having studied his “Physics”, “On the Soul” and “First Analytics”, passed exams and received the degree of Bachelor of Liberal Arts. The second year was devoted to the study of Metaphysics, Politics and Nicomachean Ethics. Considering F. Skaryna’s deep knowledge in the field of law, it can be assumed that at the university he attended lectures at the Faculty of Law - at that time one of the most famous in Europe. One of the famous legal theorists in Europe of the 16th century studied at the Faculty of Law of the University of Krakow, after F. Skaryna. Andrey Frich Mordzhevsky.
In 1506, after graduating from the university, F. Skaryna travels around Europe. There is no exact information about his occupation during this period. It can be assumed that these were years of intense study, since in 1512 F. Skaryna took the exam for the degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of Padua. The University of Padua was in the XV-XVI centuries. popular
1 See: Arieei4 U.U. 1st name i on the right Skaryny: In whose hands is spadchyna. Mn., 2002.
educational institution in Europe. Over the years, such famous scientists as Galileo Galilei, Donapomo Menocchio, Darezzo Guido, Tiberio Deciano, Francesco Curcio taught in Padua. Erasmus of Rotterdam, Nicolaus Copernicus, and Tommaso Campanella were also associated with the university.
The university was also famous for its graduates, among whom were Renaissance philosophers Pico della Mirandola and Nicholas of Cusa, kings Jan Sobieski, Stefan Batory, Gustav of Sweden, Pope Sistine IV, etc. At the beginning of the 14th century, the medical faculty of Padua became widely known in Europe. University, where the famous anatomist G. Zerbi taught, professor of practical medicine G. de Aquila, authors of the then famous treatises on medicine B. Montagnana the Younger and A. Gazzi. F. Skorina by this time had thorough philosophical and medical training. Therefore, it is no coincidence that he chooses Padua to receive his doctorate in medicine.
This significant event took place on November 9, 1512. The registry records of the University of Padua say: “...The outstanding doctor of arts Mr. Francis, son of the late Mr. Luka Skaryna from Polotsk, Rusyn, was examined in a particularly strict manner on the questions proposed to him in the morning of that day . He performed so commendably and admirably during this rigorous test of his, presenting answers to the questions put to him and refuting the evidence brought against him, that he received the unanimous approval of all the scientists present without exception and was considered to have sufficient knowledge in the field of medicine. Same dayF. Skaryna was presented with the insignia of a doctor of medicine (usually a four-cornered hat, a ring and the book of Hippocrates “Aphorisms”).
There is no information about the life of F. Skaryna over the next five years. Most likely, during these years he lived in Prague, where he studied typography, translated the Bible into Old Belarusian, and prepared it for printing. On August 6, 1517, the first book, the Psalter, was published. In 1517-1519. F. Skorina publishes 22
books of the Old Testament under the general title: “Bivlia Ruska, laid out by Doctor Francis Skaryna from the glorious city of Polotsk, honoring God and the people of the commonwealth for good teaching.”
The language of Skaryna's Bible arose as a result of establishing a correspondence between the Church Slavonic language and folk speech. Preserving the Church Slavonic base of the text, he introduced a living, vernacular language into the Bible. One of the first Belarusian philologists, E. Karsky, calls this literary language Old Belarusian.
This is how F. Skaryna laid the foundation for East Slavic book printing. He is also the first East Slavic translator of the Bible into his native language (the languages of the Bible were traditionally considered Hebrew, Greek and Latin). In addition, F. Skaryna gave commentaries on the Bible (he wrote 25 prefaces and 24 afterwords to the books of the Old Testament). Translating the Bible into the native language made it more accessible to the “pospolitan person” (in the sense of the simple, to everyone), which led to a significant expansion of the circle of its readers.
In 1520, F. Skaryna came to Vilna, and then in 1522, with the help of Yakub Babich, he published the “Small Travel Book,” and in 1525, “The Apostle,” the last of his books.
In 1525 Francis Skorina was about 40 years old, i.e. he was at the peak of his talent. Why was his publishing activity interrupted? Researchers attribute this to the ups and downs of his personal life. In 1529, his brother, a major merchant of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ivan Skorina, died and left behind numerous debts. His brother's companion was F. Skaryna's wife Margarita. A lengthy legal battle began, as a result of which all his property was described and sold. F. Skorina goes to Konigsberg and works there as a court doctor. Then he returns to his homeland, but in 1530 adversity awaits him again - a big fire completely undermines his financial situation and he leaves for Prague, which he knows, and establishes a botanical garden there.
Period Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogitia
The views of F. Skaryna can be judged by his prefaces and afterwords to the books of the Bible - he sought to introduce his compatriots, using a language they understood, into the simple and at the same time complex world of the Word of God, to introduce ordinary people to literacy and knowledge. He shows that only by taking the path of following Christian moral virtues can a person gain and strengthen his spirituality.
Ontology and epistemology. In his views on the origin of the world, F. Skorina, as a deeply religious Christian, adhered to the theological concept of creationism, i.e. believed that the world and man were created by God “out of nothing.” He did not consider the problem of existence in detail. Questions of knowledge of God occupied F. Skaryna to a greater extent. This circumstance is connected with his interpretation of the Bible. For Skotrina, the problem of being takes on not an ontological, but rather an epistemological aspect. In “The Legend to the First Books of Moses, Recommended by Genesis,” F. Skaryna argues that of all the books of the Old Testament, the books of Genesis are the most difficult to understand. Their knowledge is available only to a select few; for all other people, questions of the creation of the world are a matter of faith: “We, as Christians, have full faith in the Imams of the Almighty One God in the Trinity, who in six days created heaven and earth and all that is in them.”
Most of the Bible can be learned both logically and by the applied method, knowledge of “precious speeches.”
F. Skorina is a follower of Kirill Turovsky and Kliment Smolyatich, who asserted the human right to thoroughly understand the meaning of biblical texts.
F. Skaryna made a distinction between faith and knowledge in every possible way. In particular, he singled out biblical wisdom and philosophical wisdom, which he understood as knowledge of existence. In this, he appears as a continuer of the ideas of supporters of “dual truth” (a philosophical doctrine that distinguishes between faith and reason, divine truth and scientific truth).
The idea of Holy Scripture as a universal work received a new humanistic interpretation from Skaryna.
He argued that “the books of the Bible are the analogues” of the seven liberated sciences (the Seven Liberal Arts):
1) grammar - “hedgehogs of good honor and morality” - teaches the Psalter;
2) logic or dialectics, “3 by argument to discern truth from falsehood” - the book of Job and the Epistles of the Apostle Paul;
3) rhetoric, “hedgehog eats redness,” - the creations of Solomon;
4) music - biblical chants;
5) arithmetic - “Numbers”;
6) geometry - the book of Joshua;
7) astronomy - “Genesis” and other sacred texts.
For F. Skaryna, the Bible is not only the unconditional authority of faith, but also a deep source of morality, an invaluable object of knowledge, a kind of storehouse of natural science, historical, legal, and philosophical knowledge. But the Bible is not an absolute source of knowledge. They are given by God “in many and varied ways.” This is the natural conclusion of a doctor of medicine and a practicing doctor. To heal a person at the beginning of the 16th century, a certified doctor had to have truly encyclopedic scientific knowledge in the field of medicine, the structure and functioning of the human body.
In “The Small Travel Book” F. Skorina appears as an astronomer. He introduces amendments to the Julian calendar, determines the time of entry of the Sun into each constellation of the zodiac, and reports six lunar and one solar eclipses.
Having made the remark that issues of biblical ontology are difficult to understand, agreeing with the creationist formulation of the origin of the world, F. Skaryna, distinguishing between faith and knowledge, comes to the conclusion that it is necessary for the “possible” person to master wisdom and the sciences.
Period of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogitia
The doctrine of man. F. Skorina's philosophical positions are clearly anthropocentric in nature and generally coincide with the Renaissance tradition. The scientist viewed man as a rational, moral and social being. Arguing that every person has equal rights from birth, F. Skorina focused on the issues of his moral improvement, the meaning of life and dignity, freedom, civic activity, common and individual good. He revised the medieval Christian doctrine of the meaning of human existence, where earthly life has no intrinsic value, but is only a stage towards eternal life. When discussing the meaning of life, he emphasized the diversity of life positions and value orientations of a person. He wrote that people “are united in kingdoms and in rulership, friends in wealth and treasures, some in wisdom and science, and others in health, in beauty and in bodily strength, and some in wealth and wealth, and some in luxurious eating and drinking and in fornication, and also in children, in friends, in servants and in many other various speeches.”
Sympathetically treating the real morality of man, F. Skaryna contrasted the Christian commandments with it as the sphere of what was due, and directed the “pospolitan” person to an active, socially useful life. He believed that people are endowed with the same inclinations from birth. Human dignity must be judged not by origin, but by moral and intellectual qualities, by the benefit this or that person has brought to his “fatherland.”
The moral ideal of F. Skaryna is a Christian humanistic concept of life, in the center of which is the concept of good. F. Skorina considers the rational, moral and socially useful life of a person to be the highest good. Skaryna has priority in Russian social thought, in posing and solving the problem “man - society”. Investigating the question of the relationship between the common good (“pospolita” good) and the individual, he gave a strong preference to the former. Man is a social being, and only in public
he can realize himself. In this regard, a person simply must learn to “live together” (together, in society). Only the idea of the common good can unite people.
On the other hand, F. Skaryna constantly talks about the need for continuous improvement of human nature, which will contribute to the harmonization of social life. Following Socrates and Plato, Skaryna argued that a virtuous person is equivalent to a knowledgeable person, i.e. believed that Christian moral virtues can be taught, that the moral ideal is actually achievable with appropriate individual spiritual efforts of a person.
Giving unconditional priority to spiritual values, Skaryna, as a Christian thinker of the Renaissance, did not oppose them to carnal values, earthly joys, he advocated the need for harmony of the spiritual and earthly.
F. Skorina considered philanthropy to be the highest principle of relations between people. It is noteworthy that he extends this norm of human relations not only to Christians, but also to representatives of other faiths. In this regard, his love for humanity acquires a universal, universal character.
He is also the founder of the national-patriotic tradition in the history of social thought. F. Skorina is a patriot of his homeland. He proved this with his Christian ascetic activity for the good of his homeland. Medieval thinking, as we know, was cosmopolitan. For Skaryna, the interests of her people are higher than religious ones. Love for the homeland is elegantly expressed by F. Skorina in literary form: “By birth, animals that walk in the desert know their pits; birds flying through the air know their nests; fish swimming in the sea and in rivers sense their vira; bees and the like harrow their hives; so are people, and where they were born and nurtured according to God, in whom place they have great grace.”
Thus, F. Skorina viewed man primarily from the moral side. Believed that the main purpose
Perio d Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogitia
A person’s mission is to do good deeds for one’s neighbor, to serve the common good. Only in this case does a person realize himself as a member of society.
Political and legal views. F. Skorina stood at the origins of the so-called bourgeois legal worldview. He understood that religion is a powerful regulator of social life. However, in the conditions of the formation of new social relations, it clearly could not cope with the role of an unconditional social regulator, as it was in the Middle Ages. New socio-economic conditions required new mechanisms for managing society. F. Skorina believed that such a mechanism should be law.
The scientist distinguished between laws unwritten and written. At first people lived according to unwritten laws of mutual trust and justice. Only with the complexity of social relations do laws arise written. From the above we can conclude that F. Skaryna is a supporter of the theory of “natural law,” which was understood as a set of eternal and unchanging principles, rules, and values arising from human nature itself. These natural, unwritten laws appear in him under the name “natural law.” According to F. Skaryna, “natural law” should be the fundamental basis of written law, which, being a human institution, is not formed among peoples simultaneously and primarily depends on the level of development of forms of state life. He considers law itself in connection and unity with morality, since they have a single basis - a “natural” law, written by God “in the heart of a single person” and imprinted in his mind.
Following the tradition of ancient philosophy: for a sage, law is unnecessary because he does, out of his own conviction, what others do under pain of the law, F. Skaryna argued that a moral person can do without legal regulations. He writes: “The law is not laid down for the righteous,” since he lives according to the eternal “natural” law. Real life, however,
requires legal intervention: “And the law, or the law, was put into the essence for evil people, so that, fearing execution, they pacified their courage and had no other motives, and so that the good borders of the evil could live in peace...”.
F. Skorina put forward a number of laws and rights mandatory criteria relevant for modern lawmaking.3 the law must be “respectful, fair, possible, necessary, subsistence, near the birth, subservient to the customs of the earth, suitable for the time and place, obvious, not having hiddenness in itself, not to the property of a single person, but to written for the good of the Pospolita.” The law will be respected in society if it is fair. An unjust law embitters a person and allows him to permanently (constantly) violate it. Justice (from lat. justicia), Thus, Skaryna acquires the status of a universal ethical and legal category.
The law must also be pragmatic and workable, appropriate to the times and circumstances, open, aimed at achieving the common good. s
According to F. Skorina, the following logical connection of the foundations of the law can be built: reason - social necessity - time and place of action - justice - the common good - pragmatism - openness to its study, and, as a consequence, normal functioning.
The main task of law is the harmonization of relations between all layers and classes of society. Law is not the will of the ruling class, but a special supra-social institution that takes into account the interests of all people: “Zemstvo rights, every single people with their elders praised the essence of what is next to them, as if they had seen life stuck to them.”
Justice and the common good for F. Skorina, therefore, are not only ethical concepts, but also fundamental legal categories. Here the author expresses a brilliant guess about the possible coincidence of law and law on the basis of justice (equity), the common good and reason.
Period of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogitia
From a practical point of view, this formulation of the question is focused on humane legal proceedings, which, according to F. Skorina, is based on the same justice. Judges must judge people with a fair judgment, and do not deviate to the greedy side, and do not look at their faces, and do not accept gifts, because gifts blind the eyes of wise people and change the words of the just. Just do what is right, so that you would naturally live and own the land...” .F. Skaryna, apparently, is not in vain citing such a long quotation from Deuteronomy, where a kind of code of honor for a judge is essentially formulated.
The thinker argued that a judge needs to be not only a highly moral and impartial professional, but also an adviser. Judges conduct business not as “kings or rulers on high, having power over them, but as equals and comrades, giving them joy and administering justice between them.”
Long before the emergence of detailed legal theories in Europe, F. Skaryna declared law and justice to be the basis for the harmonious development of society. Lawlessness and imperfect legal proceedings are destroying social peace. It is the greatest social vice and is comparable only to the concept of sin, therefore it is God’s punishment. Legality is the greatest public good.
Skorin’s classification of law is also of interest. As already mentioned, he distinguishes between unwritten and written law. The latter is divided into divine, ecclesiastical and earthly law. Divine right stated in the Bible, church- in the documents of the councils, zemstvo, or secular,- the most enlightened people and sovereigns. The idea is also expressed about the great role of the people both in lawmaking and in state life: “To the right of every human assembly and every city, by faith, by the combination of kindness and goodness, goodness may be multiplied.”
F. Skaryna presents the following classification of zemstvo law. First he talks about “posspolita law”, which “from all nations of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth eats observantly, like husband and wife
respectful incident, sawing of children, gathering together of those living closely, shouting of speech, forceful violence from debate, equal freedom for all, common property for all...” “Polish law,” as we see, fixes the general principles of society.
The well-known researcher of the work of F. Skorina S. Podokshin rightly notes the coincidence of the content of the “natural human law” of Thomas Aquinas and the “pospolitan law” of F. Skaryna. Both affirm the need for the continuation of the human race, the upbringing and education of children, and other areas of popular law based on the equality of all people. It is noteworthy that Skaryna talks about the human right to respond with force to any violence.
Following F. Skaryna comes pagan law, which “has been praised from many tongues, as the acquisition of foreign lands by the sword, the establishment of cities and places, the release of ambassadors without reproaching, the fulfillment of the world until the hour, the warning of war to the enemy.” Pagan law talks about the rules of warfare between states. As a man of his time, Skaryna witnessed numerous wars and believed that they should be conducted in accordance with legal norms - notify the enemy in advance about the start of hostilities, comply with the terms of the concluded peace (truce), respect the institution of negotiations, etc.
Immediately after pagan law comes knightly law, or military In modern terms, it is a kind of army charter, since it regulates the combat formation of troops, combat tactics, and behavior on the battlefield.
This classification testifies to F. Skorina’s deep understanding of the need for legal regulation of the most important spheres of life and society, which can make it more
P period of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russia and Samogitia
stable and harmonious. F. Skaryna, like the creators of the first detailed political theories of antiquity, Plato and Aristotle, prefers an enlightened, humane and strong monarchy to other forms of government. As ideal rulers, he identified the ancient Eastern monarchs Solomon and Ptolemy Philadelphus, the ancient Greek and Roman kings and legislators Solon, Lycurgus, Numa Pompilius, who ruled on the basis of wisdom, reason, justice, deep knowledge of public affairs, and not shying away from good advice. The sovereign must rule the country in accordance with the laws and control the execution of justice. Its main task is to ensure the peaceful course of life. As a positive example, Skaryna mentions the reign of Solomon, when “there was peace and tranquility throughout all the times of his kingdom.” However, when circumstances require it, the sovereign, for the good of his homeland, must be brave, strong and formidable.
Noting class and class contradictions in society, Skaryna orients the “rich” and the “poor” to overcome them through “brotherly love,” “friendliness,” “kindness,” and adheres to the early Christian slogan “equal freedom for all, common wealth for all...”.
And now Skaryna’s words are relevant that the life of society should be based on “bad luck”: “Bad bad times destroy even the largest kingdoms.”
Although Skaryna is a representative of his time in his views on society as a whole, some of his ideas are still contemporary today. This is especially true of his methodology for creating laws, the need to build relationships between social groups and classes on the basis of public consent and mutual concessions.
An interview with the lead singer of the NUTEKI group, Mikhail Nokarashvili, was published by the “500 Year” project, dedicated to the anniversary of the first Belarusian printed book – Skaryna’s Bible.
For the third year now, the author’s cycle of TV journalist Oleg Lukashevich “Epoch” has been airing on Belarusian television. For the first time in history, this documentary project tells viewers about previously unknown pages of the biography of outstanding personalities who glorified Belarus.
The premiere of the first film “The Age” - about Marc Chagall - took place back in 2006. Then there were films about Euphrosyne of Polotsk, Adam Mickiewicz, Tadeusz Kościuszko, Stanisław August Poniatowski, Louis Mayer... Recently, another series was demonstrated: the new film was dedicated to the world-famous scientist Ignatius Domeyko.
Ruska Bible, laid out by Dr. Francis Skaryna from the glorious city of Polotsk
The book was published in Prague in 1517-1519, becoming the first printed publication in the Western Russian version of the Church Slavonic language and in the East Slavic world.
In Russia, Ivan Fedorov (and he, by the way, had Belarusian roots) is still revered as the first printer. But Francis Skorina “from the glorious city of Polotsk” published his “Russian Bible” fifty years before Ivan Fedorov. And in it he clearly indicated that this book was “written for all Russian people.” Francis Skaryna is a Belarusian and East Slavic pioneer printer, translator, publisher and artist. The son of a people living on the European borderland, he brilliantly combined in his work the traditions of the Byzantine East and the Latin West. Thanks to Skaryna, Belarusians received a printed Bible in their native language before Russians and Ukrainians, Poles and Lithuanians, Serbs and Bulgarians, the French and the British...
In 1517-1519 in Prague, Francis Skorina published the Psalter and 23 other books of the Bible that he translated in Cyrillic script in the Belarusian version of the Church Slavonic language. In 1522, in Vilna (now Vilnius), Skaryna published the “Small Travel Book”. This book is considered the first book printed in the territory that was part of the USSR. There in Vilna in 1525 Francis Skaryna published “The Apostle”. Fedorov’s assistant and colleague, Pyotr Mstislavets, studied with Skorina.
Francis Skorina - Belarusian humanist of the first half of the 16th century, medical scientist, writer, translator, artist, educator, pioneer of the Eastern Slavs.
Not all the details of Skaryna’s biography have survived to this day; there are still many “blank spots” left in the life and work of the great educator. Even the exact dates of his birth and death are unknown. It is believed that he was born between 1485 and 1490 in Polotsk, in the family of a wealthy Polotsk merchant Luka Skaryna, who traded with the Czech Republic, Muscovite Russia, and Polish and German lands. From his parents, the son adopted a love for his native Polotsk, the name of which he later always used with the epithet “glorious.” Francis received his initial education in his parents' house - he learned to read the Psalter and write in Cyrillic. It is believed that he learned Latin (Francis knew it brilliantly) at a school at one of the Catholic churches in Polotsk or Vilna.
Skorina, the son of a Polotsk merchant, received his first higher education in Krakow. There he took a course in the liberal sciences and was awarded a bachelor's degree. Skaryna also received a Master of Arts degree, which then gave the right to enter the most prestigious faculties (medical and theological) of European universities. Scientists suggest that after the University of Krakow, during 1506-1512, Skaryna served as secretary to the Danish king. But in 1512, he left this position and went to the Italian city of Padua, at the university of which “a young man from very distant countries” (as documents of that time say about him) received the degree of “Doctor of Medicine,” which became a significant event not only in the life of young Francis, but also in the cultural history of Belarus. To this day, in one of the halls of this educational institution, where there are portraits of famous men of European science who came out of its walls, there hangs a portrait of an outstanding Belarusian by an Italian master.
About the period 1512-1516 centuries. We don’t know anything about F. Skorina’s life yet. Modern scientists have suggested that at this time Skaryna traveled around Europe, became acquainted with printing and the first printed books, and also met with his brilliant contemporaries - Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael. The basis for this is the following fact - one of Raphael’s frescoes depicts a man very similar to Skaryna’s self-portrait in the Bible he later published. It is interesting that Raphael painted it next to his own image.
From 1517 Skaryna lived in Prague. Here he started his publishing business and began printing Bible books.
The first book printed was the Slavic “Psalter”, in the preface to which it is stated: “I, Francis Skaryna, son of the glorious Polotsk, a doctor in medicinal sciences, commanded the Psalter to be embossed in Russian words, and in the Slovenian language.” At that time, the Belarusian language was called “Russian language,” in contrast to Church Slavonic, which was called “Slovenian.” The Psalter was published on August 6, 1517.
Then, almost every month, more and more new volumes of the Bible were published: the Book of Job, the Proverbs of Solomon, Ecclesiastes... Over two years in Prague, Francis Skorina published 23 illustrated biblical books, translated by him into a language understandable to the general reader. The publisher provided each of the books with a preface and afterword, and included almost fifty illustrations in the Bible.
Around 1520 or a little later, the pioneer printer returned to his homeland and founded the first East Slavic printing house in Vilna. The “Small Travel Book” was published here, which is considered the first book published on Belarusian lands (there is no exact date of publication of the book). Here, in 1525, “The Apostle” was printed, which turned out to be the last book of the pioneer printer - during a fire in Vilna, Francis’s printing house was destroyed. It was with this book that 40 years later, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets, both natives of Belarus, began Russian book printing in Moscow.
The last fifteen years of Francysk Skaryna’s life are full of hardships and hardships: for some time he serves the Prussian Duke Albrecht the Elder in Konigsberg, then returns to Vilna, where his family lives. For the debts of his deceased brother, Skaryna is sent to Poznan prison. The Polish king Sigismund I released him from trial with a special letter.
In 1534, Francis Skaryna made a trip to the Principality of Moscow, from where he was expelled as a Catholic, and his books were burned (see the 1552 letter from the King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Zhigimont II Augustus to Albert Krichka, his ambassador in Rome under Pope Julius III).
Around 1535, Francis Skaryna moved to Prague, where he became the personal doctor and garden scientist of King Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who would later become Holy Roman Emperor. 1540 is considered the year of death of the great enlightener.
Before the appearance of the famous Ostrog Bible in Ukraine, Skorina's editions were the only printed translations of the Holy Scriptures made in the territories of the Eastern and Southern Slavs. These translations became the subject of inheritances and alterations - all East Slavic publishing activity in the field of biblical texts was in one way or another oriented towards Skaryna. This is not surprising - his Bible in many respects was ahead of similar publications in other countries: before the German Martin Luther, not to mention the Polish and Russian publishers. It is noteworthy that the Bible was published in the Old Belarusian language, which largely determined the development of the Belarusian press. The famous “Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania” were printed in the language of Belarus.
Skaryna’s name is also associated with a noticeable increase in attention to the heritage of antiquity. He was perhaps the first in our area to make an attempt to synthesize antiquity and Christianity, and also proposed an educational program developed in Ancient Greece - the “Seven Liberal Sciences” system. Later, it was adopted by fraternal schools in Ukraine and Belarus, developed and improved by professors of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and greatly contributed to the rapprochement of national culture with the culture of the West.
Fonts and engraved headbands from Skaryna’s Vilna printing house were used by book publishers for another hundred years.
What Francysk Skaryna actually did in Prague during the last years of his life is not known exactly. Most likely, he practiced as a doctor.
The exact date of his death has not been established; most scientists suggest that Skaryna died around 1551, since in 1552 his son Simeon came to Prague to claim his inheritance.
Only four hundred copies of Skaryna’s books have survived to this day. All editions are very rare, especially the Vilnius editions. Rarities are stored in libraries and book depositories in Minsk, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Vilnius, Lvov, London, Prague, Copenhagen, Krakow.
The language in which Francis Skaryna published his books was based on Church Slavonic, but with a large number of Belarusian words, and was therefore most understandable to the inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. For a long time, there was a heated scientific debate among Belarusian linguists about which language, of two options, Skorin’s books were translated into: the Belarusian edition (edition) of the Church Slavonic language or, under another version, the ecclesiastical style of the Old Belarusian language. Currently, Belarusian linguists agree that the language of Francis Skaryna's Bible translations is the Belarusian edition (edition) of the Church Slavonic language. At the same time, the influence of Czech and Polish languages is noticed in Skaryna’s works.
Skaryna's Bible violated the rules that existed when rewriting church books: it contained texts from the publisher and even engravings with his image. This is the only such case in the entire history of Bible publishing in Eastern Europe. Due to the ban on independent translation of the Bible, the Catholic and Orthodox churches did not recognize Skaryna’s books.
Francis Skaryna has long been revered in Belarus. The life and work of F. Skaryna is studied by a complex scientific discipline - Skaryna studies. His biography is studied in schools. Streets in Minsk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Nesvizh, Orsha, Slutsk and many other cities of Belarus are named after him. Gomel State University is named after F. Skaryna. Monuments to the outstanding scientist were erected in Polotsk, Minsk, Lida, and Vilnius. The last of the monuments was recently installed in the capital of Belarus, next to the entrance to the new National Library.
A special subject has been introduced in all schools in Polotsk - “Polotsk Studies”, in which F. Skorina occupies a worthy place. Events dedicated to the memory of the pioneer printer are held in the city according to a separate plan.
Special awards have been introduced in Belarus - the Skaryna Medal (1989) and the Skaryna Order (1995).
Russian scientist of the early 16th century, Bible translator, who laid the foundation for Western Russian book printing.
Little accurate biographical information has been preserved about him.
His homeland is Polotsk, which is indicated, for example, by his very frequent addition to his name and title of the words: “from Polotsk”, “from the glorious city of Polotsk”. He came from a wealthy merchant family, and of his relatives only his brother Ivan with his sons and sons-in-law, who had trade relations with Riga and Vilna, is known.
S. was born around 1490 and was Russian Orthodox by origin.
He calls himself “born in the Russian language” and explains his activities for the benefit of “his brotherhood of Rus'” “for the most painful reasons that the merciful God from that language (Russian) brought me into the world.” His other name, George (and, one might think, he received the name Francis at the University of Krakow) and, what is incomparably more important, all his activities speak for his Orthodox, Russian origin.
And his homeland, Polotsk, at that time was a purely Russian city, in which there was not a single church.
S. received his education at the University of Krakow.
The list of students who entered there in 1504 includes Franciscus Luce de Ploczko, and among the bachelors who received this degree at the Faculty of Philosophy in 1506 is Fran. de Poloczko, Litphanus. This fact may serve as some explanation for S.’s further activity. Both the professors of the Faculty of Philosophy, especially M. Vratislavsky and I. Glogovsky, who printed all their lectures and respected typographic activity, and the Latin and Church Slavonic printing that existed there, could arouse S.’s interest in this activities.
The strong theological direction that permeated the entire university and even the medical faculty was reflected, for example, in S.’s view of the doctoral specialty as healing first of all the soul and then the body, at least as a last resort. in his words: “Whenever we repent of our sins, the Lord God sends us shepherds and doctors, and they teach us to resist the demonic bites.” This direction at the university, along with other more important factors, especially the fact that all southwestern science and writing were of the same nature, could not but influence the fact that S.’s activities took on a religious connotation.
Finally, he received at the University of Krakow or in another place (the latter is very possible, but it is difficult to say where exactly) the degree of “doctor in medicine” or “in the sciences rescued and in medicine doctor” - as he says another time.
There is also an assumption that S. continued his education in Bologna.
About his life in 1506-1516. no information. From 1517 to 1520 he lived in Prague, engaged in publishing activities.
Czech books, especially the Bible, were known both in Poland and southwestern Russia.
S. was also attracted to Prague by well-known interpreters of St. at that time. Scriptures.
Czech printing left undoubted traces on the publications of S. 6 Aug. In 1517, his first edition of one of the most widespread books of that time among the Russian people, which served for very diverse purposes, the “Teaching Psalter,” was published, which was based on a contemporary Russian manuscript.
It is intended by the publisher for “little children” as “the beginning of every good science, literacy, and to teach good honor and morality.” Then, during the period until 1519, he published his main publication under the title: “The Russian Bible, laid out by Dr. Francis S. from the glorious city of Polotsk, to honor God and to the people of the commonwealth for good teaching.” This included: the book of Job, book. parables of Solomon and book. Jesus Sirach (here is a portrait of S., in which he is depicted as a physician with a “sphaera mundi” working on a translation of the Bible) - a total of 4 books of 222 sheets, printed in 1517; then book Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, bk. wisdom of Solomon, 2 books of Kings and book. Joshua, - 8 books in 348 sheets, printed in 1518; finally, the Pentateuch of Moses, book. Judges, Ruth, Esther, Judith, book. the Prophet Daniel and the Lamentations of Jeremiah, - 10 books in 524 sheets, printed in 1519. When translating, he did not use the Hebrew and Greek text and the Latin Vulgate; His main sources were, first of all, the Czech Bible of 1506 and then the Church Slavonic texts of some books of the Old Testament.
The similarity with the first source is visible not only in external features, but also in the text, translation, and the second one served him mainly as vocabulary material.
S. set out to publish a complete and, if possible, accessible Bible.
At the beginning of each book there is a preface, sometimes quite large, often not independent, representing a whole argument and serving as commentary, and at the end of the book there is an afterword, which notes the place and time of publication.
From the prefaces we learn how S. looked at his publishing activities.
He loves his homeland and explains it this way: “people where they were born and nurtured by God have great affection for that place.” Hence his ardent desire to benefit his native land. “We are not only going to create a people for ourselves, but more for the service of God and the good of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.” Under the influence of this thought, he “rose to his feet.” With this view, he managed to give his activities a purely Russian character.
And in his translations and interpretations intended for the Orthodox, nowhere is there noticed a desire to pursue Protestant or Uniate views, and yet this issue, one of the main ones in assessing S.’s activities, has caused great disagreement: some researchers (albeit a few) believe S. ... a Catholic and a propagandist of Catholicism in Rus', and others (also a few) - a Protestant and a preacher of the Reformation.
But both of these views do not stand up to criticism.
Turning then to the more private views of S., it should be noted that the Bible is intended, in his words, not only for scientists: “every simple and common man, by reading them or listening to them, can understand what he eats for his soulful salvation.” Despite their religious and moral significance, these books are no less suitable for teaching in general, especially for “teaching the seven sciences of the rescued.” For teaching “literacy” the psalter can primarily help; to study “loiki, also to teach the health worker to discern the truth from falsehood,” S. advises reading the book. Job or the Epistles of St. Paul; for teaching “Rhetoric, the hedgehog eats redness” - book. Solomon.
He also indicates in his books material that may be useful in the study of “music, that is, singers”, “Arhythmetic, the hedgehog... to learn”, “Astronomy or astronomy”, “philosophy of good morals”, etc. In the afterwords we everywhere we come across expressions like the following: the book was issued by “command”, “by order and by publication (translation) S.” or “laid out with paper and embossed by the command of S.”, and in one place it says even more definitely: “I told you to emboss.” These expressions indicate that the actual typographic work did not lie with him, which is quite natural given the complexity of the publishing business, but with special assistants; he himself prepared the text - translated and composed prefaces - and left the general leadership behind him.
A summary of the contents at the beginning of the book (like a table of contents) makes them easier to use. In terms of typography, the Prague editions of S., in 4th form, have reached a relatively high level of perfection and are even higher than the contemporary Venetian editions.
The font is very varied, beautiful and well done.
There are many headers in the text; This is the first time we have encountered individual engravings, carved on wood, intended for “so that my brethren Rus', the people of the Commonwealth, could understand the mundane things.” Thus, S. gives engravings, as well as prefaces and explanations of some words, in order to make his books as accessible as possible.
In general, the Prague editions, for all their originality, have quite a lot in common with Western Russian Church Slavonic manuscripts (in spelling, letters and headpieces), with Czech, German and in particular with the Nuremberg and Augsburg editions (in engravings, decorations and issue sheets).
Having finished publishing biblical books, S. became a permanent resident of Vilna around 1525 and between 1525-1529. here he marries Margarita, the widow of Yuri Odvernik.
Here he transfers his printing activities.
In 1525, he opened a printing house, as he says, “in the house of the respectful husband Yakub Babich, the eldest mayor of the glorious and great place of Vilna,” and continues his previous work under his patronage.
In 1525, S. published "The Apostle" - the first printed publication in the Church Slavonic language, in 8 volumes, 315 pages, with many headpieces, and the "Small Travel Book" (the time of its publication cannot be determined exactly), in 12 d.l., containing the psalter, book of hours, akathists, canons, six-day calendar and short calendar.
The latest edition was intended for ordinary laity, and therefore the usual text and form of the psalter were somewhat reworked.
The Vilna editions are generally less richly decorated and constitute a direct continuation of the Prague ones.
Typographically, there are few differences between them.
Almost the same format, the same similarity in paper signs, output sheets and engravings; there is a small change in the font, for example, a new style of some letters. The features of the Vilna editions indicate the same connections with German printing houses that are also visible in the Prague editions.
In his books, S. calls the language “Russian,” sometimes contrasting it without sufficient grounds with “Slovenian.” In his language, mixed and not completely established, there are quite a lot of sound and formal features of the Russian language and in particular the Belarusian dialect.
S. has a strong influence of the Church Slavonic language, explained by its enormous importance in life (in school, church and writing).
Czech and Polish speech was more weakly reflected in S.'s language. The first influence, determined by S.’s life in Prague and his translations, is noticeable from the syntactic and lexical side, and the second, less significant, explained by the connections of Belarus with Poland and its education, in some words.
There is no further information about S.'s publishing activities, and this may indicate its cessation.
The litigation for his wife's real estate in Vilna, which required a lot of trouble from him, despite its favorable outcome, and the complicated affairs of his brother Ivan, with whom he was connected by the common family property in Polotsk - all this, with the usual judicial red tape, interfered with his favorite activities.
The royal charter of 1532 mentions the confiscation of S.'s property and the red tape from which only this charter freed him.
This was a big blow for S. Finally, his activities could have been affected by the fire of 1530, which destroyed 2/3 of Vilna, and the severe pestilence of 1533. In 1535, S. was mentioned on the affairs of his brother, one might think, for the last time alive . Approximately to this time, but, in all likelihood, not to an earlier time, the death of S. P. V. Vladimirov should also be attributed, “Doctor Francis Skorina, his translations, publications and language,” St. Petersburg, 1888. This is for now the only serious experience of a comprehensive study of S.’s personality. It caused detailed reviews by A. S. Budilovich in the XXXII award ceremony gr. Uvarov (Journal of the Min. People's Education, 1890, part 272, November, section IV, 5-8) and A. I. Sobolevsky in the Journal of M. N. Pr., 1888, part 259, October, dept. II, 321-332. Both reviewers disagree with Prof. Vladimirov, mainly, is that S. is credited with bringing the book Church Slavonic language closer to the common language, and, in addition, the first doubts the purely Orthodox nature of S.’s activities and considers this position of the author, in any case, insufficiently substantiated.
Other works present either general outlines, often outdated, compilative and generally of little value, or they present the development of detailed issues. - Backmeister, “Experience on the Library of the Imperial Academy of Sciences,” 1779, 65-69, was the first to draw attention to some of S.’s works, although he did not avoid mistakes. - “The experience of the works of the Free Russian Assembly”, 1783, VI, art. Stritter, 177-194, and Alekseev 195-204. - S. Linde, "On Literaturze Rossyyskiey" in "Pamietnik Warszawski", 1815, 277-297. - Lelewel, "Bibljograficznych ksiagdwoie", Wilno, 1823. - Wisniewski, "Historija literatury polskiej", 1851, VIII, 407, 464-470, 475-480. - Golovatsky, “A few words about Skaryna’s Bible and about the handwritten Russian Bible from the 16th century,” “Scientific Collection,” 1865, 225-257, Lvov. - A.E. Viktorov, “A remarkable discovery in the ancient Russian book world” (Book I, printed by Dr. Fr. S., “Conversations in the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature,” 1867, issue I, 1-27). - “The relationship of S.’s translation to the Vulgate and to the Old Slavic text,” “Readings in a society of lovers of spiritual enlightenment,” 1877, November, 642-653. - I. A. Shlyapkin, “On the biography of Francis S.”, Journal Min. Nar. Enlightenment, part 230, 1892, No. 4. - Pervolf, “Slavic reciprocity from ancient times to the 18th century,” 1874 - F. I. Bulgakov, “Illustrated history of book printing and typographic art,” vol. I , 89, 201-214. - Gatsuk, “Essay on the history of printing in Russia”, “Russian Bulletin”, 1872, vol. ХСІХ and separ., - “F.S., publisher in the Czech Praza, in 1517, 18 and 19”, “The Word”, in Lvov, 1875, part 130. - A. Vakhnyanin, “About Doctor F.S. and his literary activity”, “The directorate of the Central Academic Gymnasium in Lvov was just established for the school day 1878- 79", Lvov, 1879 - A. Arkhangelsky, "The fight against Catholicism and Western Russian literature of the late XVI - first half of the XVII century.", "Readings in the Imperial General History and Ancient Russia.", 1888, I , 1-137, especially from 84 pages - P.V. Vladimirov, “Review of South Russian and Western Russian written monuments from the 11th to the 17th centuries,” 1890 - Him, “The beginning of Slavic and Russian printing in the 15th-16th centuries ", 1894 - A. A. Bakhtiarov, "History of books in Rus'", 1890, 66-69. - Metr. Evgeniy, "Biographies of Russian writers: Fr. S.", "Son of the Fatherland", 1821, part 71, no. 30, pp. 169-172. - His, “Dictionary of Russian Secular Writers.” - M. Krupovich, “Collection of public and private acts relating to the history of Lithuania and the possessions connected to it,” part II, 1858 - Metropolitan. Macarius, "History of the Russian Church", vol. IX, 303-304. - Chistovich, “Essay on the history of the Western Russian Church,” 1882, part I, 217-219. - Ogonovsky, “Christomaty of Staroruska”, Lvov, 1881, 281 hours; "History of Russian Literature", Lvov, 1887, I, 154-159. - Filaret G., "Review of Russian Spiritual Literature", p. 138. - P. Pekarsky, "Science and Literature under Peter the Great", II, 5. - I. Karataev, "Chronological list of Slavic books printed in Cyrillic letters. 1491 -1730.", 1861, No. 11, 14-15. - Him, “Description of Slavic-Russian books”, 1883, pp. 28-44; 56-67. - “A detailed description of Slavic-Russian manuscripts” gr. F. A. Tolstova, 1825, I, 62; II, 51, 267. - P. Stroev, “Description of early printed books... by I. N. Tsarsky,” 1836, No. 5-9. - F. Dobryansky, “Description of manuscripts of the Vilna Public Library, Church Slavonic and Russian,” 1882, pp. 441-443. - P. Keppen, “Materials for the history of education in Russia,” No. 2. Bibl. sheets 1825, pp. 35, 79-84, 152, 267, 274, 482, 577; 613. - V. Sopikov, "The experience of Russian bibliography", vol. I, pp. XLIX, XCIII, 9-18, 25-45, 119-120, 183-184, 275. - V. Ikonnikov, "The experience of Russian historiography", 251, 297, 635, 785-786, 926, XXII, ССХІІ. - A. N. Pypin, “History of Russian ethnography”, 1890-1892, I, 195; IV, 12, 30, 31, 139, 166. - His, “History of Russian Literature”, vol. I, 56, 106; II, 367, 504 ed. I. - N. Barsukov, “The Life and Works of M. P. Pogodin”, VII, 330; VIII, 175; IX, 196-197, 211; X, 117, 437, 458-459, 463; XII, 353; index by V. Maykov. - F. Buslaev, "Historical Reader", 1861, 197-206. (The first experience of scientific publication of S.’s text with grammatical notes). - I. S., “Addition to the article about the ancient portrait of S.”, “Works and chronicles of General History and Ancient at Moscow University”, book. I, 1830, 306-309. - D. A. Rovinsky, “Russian engravers and their works from 1564 to the founding of the Academy of Arts”, 1870 - Him, “Detailed dictionary of Russian engraved portraits”, 1889, II, 1643-44. - Encyclopedic dictionaries of Brockhaus and Efron (vol. XXX, 228), Toll (III, 474 and appendix 466), Berezin (C, 81), Starchevsky (C, 457), Klyushnikov (II, 745). - A. N. Neustroev, “Index to Russian periodical publications and collections for 1703-1802,” 1898, p. 624. - V. I. Mezhov, “Russian historical bibliography for 1865-1876 incl. ", II, 11096, 16172; IV, 43863, the same for 1800-1854, 17311. - His, “History of Russian and General Words.”, No. 3517, 8025. - Index... Journal. M. N. Pr. from 1867 to 1891 (Nos. 4919, 6534) and other indexes.
A. Kupalov. (Polovtsov) Skaryna, Francis Dr. Metzitz. Krakowsk academician, native of Polotsk, translator. and publisher in the Belarusian dialect of 16 books: Old. Head, Psalt. and Apost.; around 1545 Addition: Skaryna, Francis, or rather Georgy Skorynich; R. in the 1480s (no later than 1489). (Polovtsov)
Francisk Skaryna
Francis Lukic Skorina (1490, Polotsk - 1551, Prague) - Belarusian scientist, philosopher, physician (Doctor of Medicine), pioneer printer and educator, founder of East Slavic printing, translator of the Bible into the Belarusian edition (edition) of the Church Slavonic language.
He received his primary education in Polotsk. Presumably, in 1504 he became a student at the University of Krakow - however, the exact date of admission to the university has not been established. In 1506, Skaryna graduated from the faculty of the “seven free arts” (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music) with a bachelor’s degree, and later received the title of licentiate of medicine and the degree of doctor of “free arts”.
After this, Skaryna studied for another five years in Krakow at the Faculty of Medicine, and defended his doctorate of medicine degree on November 9, 1512, having successfully passed the exams at the University of Padua in Italy, where there were enough specialists to confirm this defense. Contrary to popular belief, Skaryna at the University of Padua I didn’t study, but arrived there specifically to take the exam for a scientific degree. On November 6, 1512, Skaryna passed trial tests, and on November 9, he brilliantly passed a special exam and received marks of medical merit.
In 1517, he founded a printing house in Prague and published the Psalter, the first printed Belarusian book, in Cyrillic. In total, during the years 1517-1519, he translated and published 23 books of the Bible. Skaryna's patrons were Bogdan Onkov, Yakub Babich, as well as the prince, governor of Troki and the great hetman of Lithuania Konstantin Ostrozhsky.
In 1520 he moved to Vilnia and founded the first printing house on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL). In it, Skaryna publishes “The Small Travel Book” (1522) and “The Apostle” (1525).
What Francysk Skaryna actually did in Prague during the last years of his life is not known exactly. Most likely, he practiced as a doctor.
The exact date of his death has not been established; most scientists suggest that Skaryna died around 1551, since in 1552 his son Simeon came to Prague to claim his inheritance.
Fonts and engraved headbands from Skaryna’s Vilna printing house were used by book publishers for another hundred years.
Francysk Skaryna occupies a special place in the Belarusian Renaissance. Skaryna not only carried out a revolution on Belarusian soil similar to the Gutenberg revolution, the great humanist was the first to understand how the Belarusian people should enter the family of European nations without losing their identity.
Skaryna also makes an attempt to revise the orthodox Christian interpretation of the problem of human existence. The Belarusian humanist affirms the intrinsic value of human life. Skaryna wanted to help ordinary people learn the wisdom of science. For this purpose, each of Skaryna’s books was accompanied by a preface and an afterword, which form the basis of his literary and journalistic heritage. In them, the pioneer printer expressed his social and educational views, called for strengthening law and order, explained incomprehensible words and addresses, including religious legends, as well as various information on history, geography, ethnography, and philosophy. In the preface to “The Proverbs of Solomon,” he says that the main purpose of man lies in a perfect earthly life. In his comments to Ecclesiastes, Skaryna records the multiplicity of meaning and life positions of a real person, the pluralism of his value orientations. For Skaryna, the highest good is earthly good, i.e. an intellectually rich, morally perfect and socially useful life on earth. He views man as if in three dimensions - as a rational, moral and social being. Skaryna’s ethical concept is based on the idea of the need and possibility of constant improvement of human nature. He is firmly convinced that this is what determines the perfection of social life. According to the Belarusian humanist, the concept of morality has a dual basis - individual reason and divine revelation. The natural moral law is “written in the heart of every person”; it is given to him by God along with reason and free will, thanks to which a person has the opportunity to make his own moral choice. Skaryna saw the origins of morality in man himself, his mind, his personal relationship with God. According to Skaryna, a person’s happiness lies in doing good deeds for others, “learning wisdom and truth,” and studying science. Without wisdom and without good customs it is impossible to live worthily on earth. A person, according to Skaryna, carrying out a direct, intimate dialogue with God, does not need the mediation of the church and is able to achieve moral peaks through his own efforts, personal faith in God, and independent study of the Bible. “Every person,” the thinker writes, “having reason, knows disobedience, murder, adultery, hatred, litigation, injustice... and other similar evil beings.”
Symon Budny and Vasily Tyapinsky became the successors to Skaryna’s traditions.
Conclusion
F. Skorina's worldviews are secular, socio-ethical in nature, and have a humanistic orientation. At the center are social and moral issues. He solved them based primarily on the Bible. In it, he distinguished two types of laws - “innate”: divine, existing in the soul of a person from birth, thanks to him he distinguishes between good and evil, does good to his neighbor; and “written”: arises out of necessity and reflects changes in the lives of people in different eras and in different countries. He equalized the laws of the world and the divine, the Holy Scripture lost its aura of inviolable holiness, became accessible to every thinking person. There was no need for the mediation of the church, and the person himself turned out to be the creator of his own destiny. The essential virtue of a person for Skaryna is reason. He called for turning it to the benefit of his people, the state. He is a patriot, for him service to the fatherland is more important than church sacrifices, more important than faith itself. Patriotism, a sense of duty to the homeland give moral and national The character of Skaryna’s worldview makes him a herald of Renaissance ideals in East Slavic society.
Briefly, his ideas can be characterized as follows:
patriotism;
calls on people to faithfully serve their Motherland;
state - an organization of a population that occupies a certain territory and is subject to the same authority;
the goal of the state is to achieve universal benefit, a better standard of living;
relationships between the rich and the “poor” should be built on the basis of “brotherly love”;
society must be built on the principles of peace and harmony;
the law must be fit for use, useful to the population, and consistent with customs, time and place;
was a supporter of the concept of natural law;
did not recognize the clergy’s attempts to direct lawmaking and judicial practice;
adhered to the idea of the supremacy of the people in lawmaking;
was a supporter of peace between nations ("eternal peace").
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