Theories of social change. Social change and public health

In society, the term most often used is social development. It denotes any improvements that bring positive results. However, there are also social changes that have a generally neutral effect. They do not contain an evaluative component. That is, social development is certain processes that have a positive result. The changes are quite neutral. They simply occur as a result of some historical processes.

Social change can be divided into several levels. Let's look at them all. Short-term changes occur in a short time frame. For example, this could be an organizational restructuring of government bodies. Long-term changes require a large amount of time to implement. For example, this could be a restructuring of people's morals, norms or traditions.

Partial social changes are also highlighted. Their distinctive feature is that they affect only certain segments of reality. For example, this could be the restructuring of industry or the higher education system. There are also changes affecting most

The changes under consideration affect, first of all, various groups and communities, certain processes, and organizations. Social change can occur at the level of interpersonal relationships. For example, the functions and structure of the family are changing. Restructuring can also occur at the level of various institutions and organizations. For example, social change can affect education and science. Restructuring occurs at both the level of small and large groups. In particular, the structure of the working class is changing, new ones are emerging. Perestroika can occur at the global level. For example, this includes environmental threats and migration processes.

Social change can be divided into four categories. They are determined based on which particular area is undergoing restructuring. Let's look at all four categories.

There are structural social changes. For example, they may concern the family institution. Interpersonal relationships can change towards monogamy or polygamy, having many children or having few children. Perestroika can also affect professional groups, the nation, the structure of power and management, and society as a whole. This includes changes affecting science, the education system, and religion.

Perestroika can also occur in any way, that is, relating to the relationships between different societies, individuals, institutions and structures. For example, in the field of equality, solidarity, subordination, tolerance and so on.

Functional changes affect the functions of various organizations, systems and institutions. This way, new functions can emerge or existing ones can be improved. Let's look at a simple example. In connection with the new Constitution of the Russian Federation, the functions of the legislative and executive powers have changed significantly.

Perestroika also affects the spiritual spheres. In particular, the structure of motivation for collective and individual activity may change. Perestroika affects the values, norms, goals, and ideals of people. For example, during the transition to a market economy, the motivational structure of society changed significantly. The signal for activity is personal monetary earnings, enrichment, and climbing the career ladder. Such changes influence the thoughts, values, worldviews and norms of large social groups.

89. What is meant by social change?

In the natural environment and in human society, everything is constantly changing. Even the ancient Greek philosopher and dialectician Heraclitus (late 6th century - early 5th century BC) expressed the idea of ​​continuous change: “everything flows, everything changes,” “You cannot step into the same river twice.” Changes occur every hour, every minute. A person grows or ages, is born or dies. New organizations and global social systems are emerging and old ones are disintegrating.
In sociology, social change refers to the transformations that occur over time in organizations, the structure of society, patterns of thinking, culture, and social behavior. Change is the transition of a social object from one state to another; significant transformation of social organization, social institutions; growth of diversity of social forms, etc.
The main point in the concept of social change is that “differences must concern different time moments and states of the same system,” the same observable social object, for example, a specific society (state), a specific organization, a specific social group, a specific culture etc. Changes are differences between what the system was in the past and what became of it after a certain period of time.
The types of social change are very diverse. They can cover the entire social system, or they can give “priority” to some aspect (element), they can be short-term and long-term, they can lead the system to development or decline.
Social change must be considered as a multifactorial process, which is influenced by the “challenges” of the external environment, changes in the economy, culture, ideology, etc.
A process is understood as any type of movement, change of state of an object or phenomenon. This is an endless stream of events, modifications, transformations, sociocultural changes.
It is also a sequence of social events. Without a process leading to certain changes, the social system cannot exist. Change is the result of various processes occurring over time.
Processes occur at various levels of the social system. The object of observation can be an individual, a social group, an organization, a society, or the entire human society.
Along with the actual processes and changes taking place, processes of comprehension, evaluation, revaluation and interpretation of certain events occur in human knowledge. At the same time, there can be an infinite number of points of view on the same existence, from partially coinciding to directly opposite. For example, the Bolsheviks and many millions of people in the USSR and around the world assessed and continue to assess the October Revolution (1917) as the highest, progressive event in the history of mankind, but a significant number of people (including citizens of Russia) assess this event as the greatest tragedy of the Russian (and not only) people. In addition, human knowledge tends to constantly re-evaluate what has already happened and give past events new interpretations, thus “constructing a new social reality in people’s minds.”

90. What are the theories of social change?

There are a significant number of theories and trends in the sociology of social change. Let's look at the three most studied: evolutionist, neo-evolutionist and the theory of cyclical change.
Evolutionism proceeds from the fact that society develops in an ascending line from lower to higher forms. This movement is constant and irreversible. All societies, all cultures go from a less developed state to a more developed one according to a single pre-established pattern. Representatives of classical evolutionism are such scientists as Charles Darwin, O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim. For example, Spencer believed that the essence of evolutionary change and progress lies in the complication of society, in the strengthening of its differentiation, in the withering away of unadapted individuals, social institutions, cultures and the survival and prosperity of the adapted.
Classical evolutionism views changes as strictly linear, ascending and developing according to a single scenario. It was believed that currently existing primitive societies show us what a developed society was like in the past, and a developed society shows us what primitive societies will become in the future.
The theory of classical evolutionism has repeatedly been subject to justified criticism from its opponents. The following arguments were put forward:
. Many historical events are limited and random.
. The growth in the diversity of human populations (tribes, cultures, civilizations) does not give grounds to talk about a single evolutionary process.
. The increasing conflict potential of social systems does not correspond to evolutionary views of change.
. The cases of retreats, failures and destruction of states, ethnic groups, and civilizations in the history of mankind do not give grounds to talk about a single evolutionary scenario.
. The evolutionist postulate (statement) about the inevitable sequence of development is questioned by the historical fact that in the course of development some stages can be skipped, and the passage of others can be accelerated. For example, most European countries, in the course of their development, passed such a stage as slavery.
. Some non-Western societies cannot be assessed on a single scale of development and maturity - they are simply qualitatively different from Western ones.
. Evolution cannot be equated with progress, since many societies, as a result of social changes, find themselves in a state of crisis and/or deteriorating. For example, Russia, as a result of the beginning of the 90s of the twentieth century. liberal reforms, in terms of their main indicators (socio-economic, technological, moral-ethical, etc.), turned out to be set back in its development by many decades.
. Classical evolutionism essentially excludes the human factor in social change, instilling in people the inevitability of upward development.
Neo-evolutionism. In the 50s of the twentieth century, after a period of criticism and disgrace, sociological evolutionism again became the focus of attention of sociologists. Scientists such as G. and J. Lenski, L. White, J. Stewart, M. Sahlins, E. Service, T. Parsons and others, distancing themselves from classical evolutionism, proposed their own theoretical approaches to evolutionary changes.
The main provisions of neo-evolutionism:
. If classical evolutionism proceeds from the fact that all societies go through the same path of development from lower to higher forms, then representatives of neo-evolutionism come to the conclusion that each culture, each society, along with general trends, has its own logic of evolutionary development.
. The focus is not on the sequence of necessary stages, but on the causal mechanism of change.
. When analyzing changes, neo-evolutionists try to avoid assessments and analogies with progress.
. Basic views are formed in the form of hypotheses and assumptions, and not in the form of direct statements.
. Evolutionary processes do not proceed uniformly along an ascending straight line, but spasmodically.
. Evolutionary changes are multilinear in nature as a historical process. At each new stage of social development, one of the lines that played a secondary role at the previous stage may become leading.
Theories of cyclical changes. The cyclical nature of various natural, biological and social phenomena was known already in ancient times. For example, ancient Chinese sages identified cycles with periods of 3, 9, 18, 27 and 30 years in various social phenomena; Babylonian sources mention cycles with periods of 600, 59, 54, 19 and 8 years; Ancient Greek philosophers and historians Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle and others developed the doctrine of the cyclical nature of political regimes of power.
In the Middle Ages, the Arab scientist and poet Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) compared the cycles of civilization with the life cycles of living organisms: growth - maturity - old age.
During the Enlightenment, the Italian court historiographer Giambattista Vico (1668-1744) developed a theory of the cyclical development of history. He believed that the typical historical cycle goes through three stages: anarchy and savagery; order and civilization; the decline of civilization and a return to new barbarism. Moreover, each new cycle is qualitatively different from the previous one, i.e., the movement proceeds in an upward spiral.
Russian philosopher and sociologist N.Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885) in his book “Russia and Europe” presented human history divided into separate “historical-cultural types” or civilizations. Each civilization, like a biological organism, goes through the stages of birth, maturity, decrepitude and death. In his opinion, no civilization is better or more perfect; each has its own values ​​and thereby enriches the general human culture; each has its own internal logic of development and goes through its own stages.
In 1918, the book of the German scientist O. Spengler (1880-1936) “The Decline of Europe” was published, where he develops the ideas of his predecessors about the cyclical nature of historical changes and identifies eight “higher cultures” in world history: Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian , Chinese, Greco-Roman, Arabic, Mexican (Mayan) and Western. Every culture experiences cycles of childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. Having realized the entire sum of possibilities and fulfilled its purpose, the culture dies. The emergence and development of a particular culture cannot be explained from the point of view of causality - the development of culture occurs according to its inherent internal necessity.
Spengler's predictions for the future of Western culture were very gloomy. He believed that Western culture had passed its heyday and entered a stage of decay.
The theory of life cycles of civilizations was developed in the works of the English historian A. Toynbee (1889-1975), who believed that world history represents the emergence, development and decline of relatively closed discrete (discontinuous) civilizations. Civilizations arise and develop as a response to the challenge of the surrounding natural and social environment (unfavorable natural conditions, attack by foreigners, persecution of previous civilizations). As soon as the answer is found, a new challenge and a new answer follows.
Yu.V. offers his version of the origin, development and decline of civilizations. Yakovets in the book “History of Civilizations”. He believes that the trajectory of development and decline of any civilization does not resemble an evenly ascending and descending arc, but a “three-humped camel.” During its full life cycle, civilization experiences three upswings, followed by a decline. The first rise - relatively short, but high - is observed in the phase of the formation of civilization; the second - the most significant - on phase maturity; the third - as an attempt to reanimate an outdated sick organism - at the last phase of the general crisis of civilization. The general crisis and collapse mark the beginning of a transition period to another civilization.
Analysis of the above points of view allows us to draw some general conclusions about the theory of cyclical changes in general:
. ideas about the cyclical nature of social changes existed already in ancient times;
. cyclic processes are closed, when each complete cycle returns the system to its original (identical to the original) position; are spiral-shaped, when the repetition of certain stages occurs at a qualitatively different level (higher or lower);
. any social system in its development experiences a number of successive stages: origin, development (maturity), decline, destruction;
. phases of system development, as a rule, have different intensity and time duration - accelerated processes of change in one phase can be replaced by long-term stagnation (conservation) in another;
. no civilization (culture) is better or more perfect;
. social changes are not only the result of the natural process of development of social systems, but also the result of active transformative human activity.

91. What types of social changes are divided into?

Social changes can occur in the following main forms: functional changes, reforms, revolutions, modernization, transformation, crises.
Functional changes in social systems are adaptive in nature. They can be compared to preventative maintenance and routine car repairs. Such repairs are carried out to maintain the system in working order. The task of functional changes does not include radical reforms that involve qualitative structural changes. Their goal is adaptation to changing environmental conditions (natural and social) and the internal needs of the social system.
Reforms in social systems. Reform is a transformation, change, reorganization of any aspect of social life or the entire social system. Reforms, unlike revolutions, involve gradual changes in certain social institutions, spheres of life or the system as a whole. They are carried out with the help of new legislative acts and are aimed at improving the existing system, without its qualitative changes. Thus, the reforms of Peter I radically changed the system of government of the country, but the foundations of autocracy remained unchanged.
The danger of quick and radical reforms is that they can get out of the control of the “reformers” themselves and the public and become unpredictable. For example, perestroika, which began in the USSR in 1985 with the goal of reforming the socialist system, got out of the control of the party and political elite and led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the course of their further development (liberalization and democratization), the reforms were transformed into a criminal “revolution” aimed at plundering Russia by new political and economic elites.
Reforms are usually understood as slow evolutionary changes that do not lead to mass violence, rapid changes in political elites, or rapid and radical changes in the social structure and value orientations. For example, China's transition from a state-planned economy to a market economy is carried out using reform methods that have been ongoing for more than 20 years.
Social revolutions. A revolution is a rapid fundamental socio-economic and political change, usually carried out by force. A revolution is a revolution from below. It sweeps away the ruling elite, which has proven its inability to govern society, and creates a new political and social structure, new political, economic and social relations. As a result of the revolution, basic changes occur in the social class structure of society, in the values ​​and behavior of people.
The revolution involves large masses of people in active political activity. Activity, enthusiasm, optimism, hope for a “bright future” mobilize people for feats of arms, free labor and social creativity. During the period of revolution, mass activity reaches its apogee, and social changes reach unprecedented speed and depth. K. Marx called revolutions “the locomotives of history.”
Revolutionary is also called rapid and radical changes that occur in certain spheres (subsystems) of society, for example, in the political - a change of political elites when the political opposition comes to power; radical changes in economic structures; epoch-making scientific and technological discoveries (scientific and technological revolution), etc.
Large-scale (“great”) revolutions, as a rule, lead to civil wars and the senseless destruction of large numbers of people. Moreover, the outcome of the revolution is unpredictable. For the most part, they do not end with what the revolutionaries dreamed of. Therefore, many researchers of the problem consider the revolution a disaster for the country and its people. For example, P. Torokin believes that “revolution is the worst way to improve the material and spiritual conditions of life of the masses... Whatever it achieves, it is achieved at a monstrous and disproportionately high price.”
Social modernization. Modernization refers to progressive social changes, as a result of which the social system (subsystem) improves the parameters of its functioning. The process of transforming a traditional society into an industrial one is usually called modernization. The reforms of Peter I (the beginning of the 18th century), as a result of which Russia was supposed to reach the level of development of Western countries, also implied modernization. Modernization in this sense means achieving certain world standards or a modern level of development.
Social transformation. Transformation (from Latin - transformation, transformation) is a transformation that occurs in society as a result of certain social changes, both purposeful and chaotic.
Social crisis. Crisis (from Latin - decision, turning point, outcome) is a difficult transitional state of a social system, suggesting radical changes to solve emerging problems.

92. What social changes are taking place in modern Russia?

The events taking place in the last 15-20 years in Russian society, according to some researchers, are revolutionary in nature; others believe that the changes taking place, although radical, are still reforms; still others talk about attempts to modernize society, etc. Let's try to consider these events from the perspective of the theory of social change.
As a starting point, let's take the events that began in the mid-80s of the twentieth century, when the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev proclaimed a course of development for the country (the Soviet Union) called “perestroika.”
Perestroika implied the implementation of a whole set of reforms in all major spheres of life in Soviet society. In the economic sphere, new forms of relations were introduced, such as collective contracting, rent, self-financing, etc.; in the political sphere - democratization and openness; in the social sphere, the tasks were set to achieve a higher standard of living for Soviet people.
The reforms carried out since the mid-80s represented an attempt to modernize the entire national economic complex of the country and achieve a qualitatively new level of development of society that meets global standards. But they were carried out within the framework of the then existing socialist (state-monopoly) system, which could not be reformed in principle without a radical revision of the relations of property, competition, and market. In addition, a significant part of the party and state elite showed serious resistance to the ongoing reforms, which ultimately manifested itself during the coup attempt in August 1991. The working people of the country were not quite ready to work in the new conditions. Therefore, Gorbachev’s perestroika is assessed by many researchers as an “era of pseudo-reforms.” The result of failed reforms was a general crisis of the socialist system and Soviet society, which led to the collapse of the USSR (1991) and the beginning of new radical changes in Russia.
Changes taking place in Russian society since the early 90s of the twentieth century. and to the present day, clearly “break down” into three main stages:
1. First stage. Radical reforms and changes that took place in 1991-1993. Many researchers call it a bourgeois liberal-democratic revolution directed against the authoritarian-bureaucratic regime. However, from the point of view of the theory of social change, these events do not meet the definition of “social revolution” for the following reasons:
Firstly, as a result of the turbulent events of the end of 1991 (the suppression of the putsch, the collapse of the USSR, etc.), there was no real change in the ruling political elite. A significant part of the former party nomenklatura, headed by B.N., remained in power. Yeltsin, which attracted a certain number of market economists into its ranks.
Secondly, a revolution, as mentioned above, is a revolution from below, when the masses themselves sweep away the ruling elite and participate in the creation of a new political and social structure. In the events of 1991-1993. There were mass protests of the people, but they were local and short-term in nature. Major political decisions were made by the political elite independently.
Thirdly, the revolution, especially in the first phase of its development, seeks to solve the problems of the majority. The radical reforms of the early 90s in this regard looked more like a behind-the-scenes conspiracy of the ruling elite aimed at robbing Russian citizens and stealing state property.
2. The second stage (mid-90s - late 1999) can be characterized as a period of adaptation of social actors to new conditions, and we can say that it was a period of chaotic crisis transformation of Russian society with an uncertain future.
The negative consequences of this period include:
. continuation of the criminal privatization of state property;
. theft of budget funds by the ruling elite;
. growth of the shadow economy and income from criminal activities (robberies, extortions, financial fraud, etc.);
. absolute and relative impoverishment of the country's population;
. constant threat of unemployment, liquidation of enterprises, non-payment of wages;
. an increase in crime and people's loss of a sense of security;
. merging of law enforcement organizations with criminal elements, growing distrust of citizens in the police;
. mass robbery of people through various types of “financial pyramids”;
. widening income gap between rich and poor.
The positive consequences of this stage include:
. denationalization of the economy and the release of private initiative, which contributed to the creation of a social layer of owner-entrepreneurs;
. development of market relations and adaptation of Russian citizens to new economic conditions;
. under the conditions of reforms, through trial and error, many economic forms and initiatives received practical testing.
At the second stage, the collapse of the Soviet institutional system was basically completed. However, new social institutions have shown their inability (or unwillingness) to improve the efficiency of the Russian economy. The main part of the ruling elite was concerned with personal enrichment. The criminal redistribution of property has acquired national proportions. Murders of bankers, entrepreneurs, senior government officials and deputies at all levels have become commonplace. The reforms gave way to a spontaneous crisis transformation of society, which only deepened the general crisis.
3. The beginning of the third stage of social changes is associated with the coming to power of the country’s new political leader V.V. Putin. The initiative and activity of the new president in domestic and foreign policy contributed to the strengthening of Russian statehood, a certain economic stability of the country and increasing its authority in the international arena.
In the last four years there has been some economic growth, approximately 4-6% per year; incomes of the population increased by an average of one third; The Russian ruble has significantly strengthened its position.
However, certain successes, according to many politicians and economists, were achieved not due to the growth of industrial production and improving the quality of products, but due to an increase in the export of non-renewable raw materials and unusually high oil prices. Therefore, the past four years (1999-2004) are essentially years of lost opportunities.
President of Russia V.V. Putin, in his annual address to the Federal Assembly (May 26, 2004), was forced to admit that the country had restored only 40% of the level of development lost since 1989 and that 30 million Russians live below the poverty line (according to sociological studies, the number of poor people is much higher).
The demographic situation continues to worsen. Along with the low birth rate, the mortality rate is increasing. Thus, in 2002, there were 16.3 deaths per 1 thousand population. This is the highest figure in Europe. Over the past 4 years, mortality has increased by 20%, while almost every third person who died was of working age.
The above arguments allow us to conclude that the reforms planned in the early 90s to modernize the Russian economy were largely not implemented. The country moved from a distributive planned economy to a market economy, but this was achieved by robbing the people and the complete collapse of the country's economic potential.

Literature

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Parsons T. The system of modern societies. - M., 1997.
Ryvkina R.V. The drama of change. 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M., 2001.
Sorokin P.A. Human. Civilization. Society. - M., 1992. Sociological encyclopedia in 2 volumes. - M., 2003.
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Never before have changes in the life of society and the individual occurred so rapidly! Moral norms, relationships between people, family traditions, and educational standards are changing. New professions, social institutions, and political parties are emerging. Every day a person is bombarded with a huge flow of information. Not everyone can withstand the frantic pace of life. Many people are in a constant state of stress and feel fear or confusion about the future.

But life cannot be stopped. Development and transformation are integral characteristics of any society.

Concept and main reasons

Due to its abstract nature, there is no single definition of this concept in science. In a general sense, social change refers to changes that occur over a short or long period of time in social structures and society as a whole.

The following reasons for the transformations in modern times are identified:

Changes in the political, cultural, and social life of society can be realized gradually, smoothly, sometimes even imperceptibly for the average person, which makes it possible to characterize the ongoing changes as evolutionary.

Rapid transformation, leading to qualitative changes in one or more spheres of society, are called revolutionary.

Modern science, in addition to evolutionary and revolutionary, identifies cyclical changes in society, in which social phenomena (processes) are repeated at other times and under other conditions.

Views of scientists

Scientists presented the main reason for the changes taking place in society in different ways.

O. Comte saw it in the progress of the human mind, in the transition from a military society to an industrial one.

G. Spencer He considered the fundamental condition for transformation to be the complication of the structure of society, the growth of self-awareness and personal freedom.

K. Marx assigned the main role in transforming society to the productive forces.

The main reason for social change is M. Weber- social structures necessary for social development. When creating these structures, each person relies on his own moral and political attitudes, as well as religious views.

It was religion that Weber assigned a key role in the progress of humanity and recognized it as the driving force in the development of society.

Having subjected a deep analysis to the main world religions (Confucianism, Buddhism, Judaism), Weber came to the conclusion that it is beliefs that leave an imprint on the methods of farming, the structure of society, and the development of civilization as a whole. For example, immersion in one’s own feelings and the desire to acquire spiritual experience, characteristic of Confucianism and Buddhism, hinder the advancement of capitalism in the East.

The sociologist also sees the reasons for the rapid development of Western society in religious views and personal characteristics characteristic of Europeans: rational thinking, a tendency towards bureaucracy.

The change in the structure of society and the emergence of new social institutions in Weber's sociology is associated with the concept of charisma. It is this quality, inherent in some public leaders and generals, that distinguishes an outstanding personality from ordinary people. The owner of charisma is credited with exceptional, superhuman abilities (Buddha, Christ). A charismatic leader, according to the scientist, can make changes even to a stable social structure devoid of dynamism.

Factors promoting social change

With all their diversity, the main factors of social change can be combined into the following groups: social, economic, political, technological.

The characteristics of each group are presented in the table.

Table. Factors of change in society

What social changes are taking place in modern society

Transformation in one area of ​​social life entails changes in other areas. Transformations are taking place in the political (election of new government leaders, change of forms of government), cultural (revival of customs, rethinking of history), social sphere (emergence of new social groups, professions).

In modern society, close political and economic ties are being established between states and a unified information field is being created. World powers are becoming interconnected and interdependent. This process is called globalization. It has both positive (technological growth, creation of new jobs, free access to information) and negative (environmental problems, unprecedented increase in migration flows, uneven economic development of states) sides.

In modern Russia

When considering the transformations taking place in our country, we must not forget that the Russian Federation is not an isolated state. All processes characteristic of the world community also affect Russia.

Over the past few decades, serious changes have occurred both in the structure of society and in the worldview of Russians.

Many sociologists, characterizing trends in changes in the lives of Russians, attach particular importance to the process of computerization and the use of the Internet. The following main aspects are highlighted:

1. automation of some stages of the labor process, i.e., some of the functions previously performed by people are now performed by mechanisms;
2. the ability to quickly obtain diverse information. Optimistic researchers believe that access to the Internet will lead to an increase in population literacy. Unfortunately, having knowledge does not always mean its correct application;
3. changing forms and methods of communication between people. Friendly conversations are increasingly taking place through messaging via mobile applications or emails. To convey emotions, interlocutors use the language of ideograms and emoticons;
4. creation of information computer databases. Personal information provided by a person for one purpose (purchasing online, paying for goods with a bank card, etc.) can potentially be used for other purposes. Some researchers see this as a danger of unauthorized surveillance of the private lives of citizens.

A person living in constantly changing circumstances is forced to develop new qualities that help him adapt to the world around him. To feel comfortable and successfully adapt to any situation without being subject to constant stress, you need to have not only knowledge and skills, but also flexibility of thinking, mobility and the ability to critically evaluate incoming information.

We already know that social change can; happen for many reasons. Now let’s try to determine the features of the impact of social changes on society. What is changing anyway? Sociologists have focused their attention on the following factors. 1.

Change in the composition of the study population. A sociologist who is interested in how the arrival of the railroad affected the lives of the population of a small town is probably examining changes in the ethnic composition, occupations, and incomes of its residents.

A connection to a major nearby city could presumably attract people who can afford the purchase of a new home and the daily commute to the big city. In this case, we can expect a change in the composition of the population of a small town. 2.

Changing ways of behavior. Scientists who studied the influence of motorized sleds on the life of the Arctic population noted changes in the level of social interaction, methods of hunting and cattle breeding in these societies. 3.

Changing social structure or patterns of interaction. The peoples of the Arctic have experienced changes in the economy and distribution of power. Changes may also occur in family life, education and religion. 4.

Changing cultural patterns. New areas of knowledge, new beliefs, values, expressive means of art not only cause changes in other aspects, but can themselves change under their influence. For example, in South American countries such as Chile, the oppression of vast masses of poor peasants and working class people by a small number of wealthy landowners and corporations contributed to the popularity of anti-capitalist ideas among oppressed groups.

MARX "SOCIAL SHIFT

In considering the process of social change, theorists have attached varying importance to the factors just listed. For example, Karl Marx particularly emphasized changes in social structure. First of all, as mentioned several times in this book, Marx believed that changes in class relations brought about by economic conditions were the cause of other social and cultural changes. Moreover, unlike the functionalists, he emphasized the role of conflict as a source of social development.

When creating his works in the mid-19th century, Marx was aware of the social impact of technology on all aspects of life around him. The Industrial Revolution, associated with new methods of mining ore, producing steel, making textiles, organizing transport and communications, contributed to the urbanization of agricultural countries and the formation of new social classes. He attached great importance to the study of a new economic system - capitalism, which arose as a result of the industrial revolution.

According to Marx, capitalist societies consist of two main social groups. Capitalists own the means of production: factories, farms, mines and railroads, where various types of labor and services are generated. Capitalists determine where, when and how work will be done. Workers constitute the other main group. For them, the possibilities of economic choice are much more limited than for capitalists. They can only sell their labor or not work at all. However, in the 19th century. in England, avoiding work was tantamount to living in abject poverty and hunger, since there were no government programs to help those who were not working.

As Marx noted, the most important cause of social change is competition among capitalists. For example, factory owners strive to spend as little money as possible to produce goods and sell them at a lower price than any other manufacturer. This sets up a kind of production cycle. Each time the introduction of a new invention, device or process helps reduce the cost of production; Competing companies are also starting to use it to save money. Soon all enterprises are producing this product at the same cost.

The desire to increase revenues and attract more customers looking for products at lower prices encourages new inventions. This is how a new production cycle begins. Thus, according to Marx, capitalism requires continuous improvement and expansion of production. This is done by dividing each large task into a number of smaller ones (division of labor), and by using machines to produce goods in huge quantities. Marx believed that the main source of economic development under capitalism is

the use of machines to produce work that in the past was done by people. Machines work faster than people, produce more goods, and wear out more slowly. Therefore, they pay off quite well. For example, in the beginning, a spinning loom could spin 366 pounds of cotton in 150 hours. The same work done by hand using a spinning wheel took 27,000 hours. It was cheaper for the manufacturer to operate a machine for 150 hours than to use manual labor for 27,000 hours. The use of machinery helped reduce the costs of the enterprise owner and increase income through the sale of finished products.

This brings us to the essence of Marx's theory of surplus value. The difference in the cost of raw materials and finished goods is a result of the processing of raw materials in the factory. This processing, whether done manually or by machine, is included in the price of the final product. The press is made of durable metal and therefore can perform the same movement hundreds of thousands of times with little wear and tear. He can work productively “tirelessly.” A blacksmith works slower and less productively than a press. And since the higher cost of the blacksmith's labor is included in the cost of each item produced, the entrepreneur could conceivably save a lot of money by firing the blacksmiths and replacing them with machines. The higher income received from the use of machine labor compared to manual labor constitutes surplus value. The manufacturer tries to increase surplus value by increasing the productivity of the production process.

In the 19th century capitalists used many methods for this, sometimes creating terrible working conditions; they sought to force workers to work longer and produce more goods at the same cost (i.e. capital investment). To achieve these goals, the owners created crowded conditions in factories, increased working hours, accelerated the introduction of new technical equipment, hired women and children, paying them the minimum wage. The effects of these and other conditions could be seen in industrial areas of England. Child mortality increased by 26 percent, mainly as a result of malnutrition and disease.

Marx foresaw the catastrophic consequences of these trends. As industry becomes more efficient and productive, fewer workers will be needed.

They will have to fight among themselves for diminishing jobs. Wealth will be concentrated in the hands of a few. A whole army of unemployed people will arise whose hands no one needs. Small firms will be squeezed out; they will not be able to compete with larger corporations. Big capital will grow, and the owners of small enterprises will be forced to join the ranks of the working class. “They have no choice but to stand with an outstretched hand next to the workers.”

Marx believed that in this way capitalism dooms itself to destruction. Changes in technology, along with the need to have more and more capital to expand production and increase income, will lead to sharp contradictions between social classes. Ultimately this class struggle will destroy the capitalist system.

Marx correctly pointed out some of the major factors causing change in capitalist systems. They still exist in modern societies. However, he underestimated capitalism's ability to self-regulate and correct its worst evils. For example, he did not place much importance on the government's ability to regulate competition and prevent the worst forms of exploitation. However, many governments have relaxed the system of private enterprise by introducing laws governing hours and conditions of work, safety measures at work, unemployment benefits and pension funds. A progressive tax, along with other means of redistributing wealth, is designed to ensure that some of the wealth created by high productivity flows from those who control the means of production to low-wage workers and the poor. For these reasons, divisions and conflicts between classes in advanced capitalist societies are not as severe as Marx predicted.

OGBORN'S CULTURAL LAG THEORY

Like Marx, American sociologist William Fielding Ogborn studied the impact of changes in technology on culture. His theory of social shift (Ogborn, 1922) is based on the uneven change in different aspects of culture.

Ogborn identified two aspects to culture: material and intangible. Material culture includes manufactured goods, factories, houses, cars - in short, all material objects, as well as inventions and technological innovations. Intangible culture, which Ogborn called adaptive, includes social institutions such as the family, church, school, value systems (laws, religions, customs, mores and beliefs) and political institutions (governments, lobbies, political clubs).

Ogborn's main idea: adaptive culture usually changes more slowly than material culture. One of the reasons for this is the presence of conservative groups (for example, religious circles) that protect their ideas and values ​​from the influence of material culture. Other elements of adaptive culture only partially adapt to new conditions. Ogborn cites family as an example. Within the family, to some extent, adaptation to material changes is observed. Thus, during the Industrial Revolution, some crafts (weaving, soap making, leather tanning) were forced out of the home and turned into a factory production industry. The growing demand for factory labor encouraged women to work outside the home. At the same time, they still had to carry out their traditional household duties. Thus, the family is part of an adaptive culture that has been slow to adapt to material changes. In part, it was the deep gap between the demands placed on women at work and the pressures of domestic care that drew Ogeorn's attention to the problem of cultural lag - the discrepancy between changes in material culture and the response of adaptive culture.

Ogborn believed that change in one part of a social system (especially advances in technology) requires corresponding changes in other aspects of it. Until this is achieved, society (or at least some sections of it) will face many problems.

One of the reasons for cultural lag is habit and inertia. It is often difficult to convince people of the advisability of new, smarter behavior. Another obstacle to change is the fact that modern societies are made up of groups with deeply divergent interests. A social innovation (such as a relaxation of immigration laws) may be highly desirable to those seeking to bring their relatives into the country and to provoke strong opposition from those who fear losing their jobs because immigrants need them or need to provide them with benefits.

OKurne believed that “cultural lag” had become a pressing problem in modern society. Changes in the material components of culture are now occurring rapidly. In earlier centuries, societies had more time to adapt to innovations and test different ways of implementing these measures. For example, today we are faced with the problem of the rapid proliferation of nuclear weapons. The possibility of almost complete destruction of all life on Earth already exists within the lifetime of an entire generation of people, but we are still just creating effective international political institutions designed to control the spread of this danger and achieve its prevention.

From Natalia Kotelnikova:

This article may give you peace of mind in the wrong places. ALL OF THE SYMPTOMS THAT ARE LISTED COULD BE AN ACTUAL DISEASE THAT WOULD ACTUALLY SUFFER YOU SEVERELY, SUCH AS PULMONARY. Keep your nose to the wind, stay up to date with the latest news, but remember that channelings are written mainly by people over 50, and they sometimes tend to wishful thinking - their real ailments as symptoms of transition. I want to say that I have never had such symptoms. But if you cannot explain your physical condition in any way and the doctors say that everything is fine with you, then this may also be a symptom of transition.

I join in the loss of memory and disorientation, also names and numbers have always been difficult for me, but now it has become more difficult, because I conduct seminars... Those who connect with the Teachers, with the Great Goddess and their own mentors often meditate and are in the higher channels , is practically freed from the instability of one’s own energy, because constantly undergoes harmonization and attunement of the body and psyche with higher vibrations. Our ascension process is gentle and unnoticeable.

Everything in the world vibrates at the nanolevel. These vibrations are of different frequencies, and, if we talk about people, then it is by your individual vibrations, by the set of vibrations of the organs of your body, that you can create your true ID (identification number), which will not be repeated in any living creature.

The objective world also vibrates - planet Earth, Space, the Sun are in a state of continuous vibration.

Life in our era is such that we will have to experience a moment of change in the vibrations of our planet, the Sun and the entire Solar System.

With the increase in vibrations of the planet and the Sun, it is assumed that living beings included in this System should also evolve in frequency. But alas, not everyone succeeds. Therefore, those who do not conform become uncomfortable.

Everything in the Universe is interconnected. We are connected with our planet Earth, just as it is connected with the Solar System, just as the entire Solar System is connected with the Galaxy, and the Galaxy with the Universe. This is all one living organism.

The planets of the Solar System are changing their vibrations, and this is happening now. Changes in vibrations lead to changes in the magnetic field. You can accept it or not, but the facts are this: the pole shift is already underway.

DNA undergoes dramatic changes.

Attention! A very important article related to solar flares!

THE SUN HELPES US TRANSFORM DNA.

The changes are not discussed publicly because the scientific community believes it might scare the public. However, people change at the cellular level. Most people know and feel this. Many religions talked about change and knew it would happen in different ways. This is a positive mutation, although physically, mentally and emotionally you may experience fear and confusion..."

Today, human DNA has begun to mutate under the influence of solar activity. I am writing this because many are scared, try to look for doctors, unable to recognize the process of changes in their physical body on a deep level. But the treatment does not work, government medical proposals do not work, all this does not correspond to the challenges that the Sun offers to man.

These symptoms come and go unexpectedly, appear for no reason, and go away on their own. These are good signs: the body is sending you a message that it is freeing itself from old biology and old thinking, do not lag behind it.

Symptoms that occur when DNA mutations and body changes at the cellular level:

- Feeling tired or exhausted with little exertion.
- The desire to sleep longer or more often than usual.
- Flu symptoms are high fever, sweat, pain in bones and joints, etc., and all this cannot be treated with antibiotics.
- Dizziness
- Ringing in the ears
- An important symptom is pain in the heart, cardiac arrhythmia, which occurs due to the heart adjusting to new energies.

Now is the time to open the 4th chakra, the chakra of love and compassion, it is often blocked, and its activation can be accompanied by attacks of melancholy and fear. The 4th chakra is associated with the thymus gland. This organ is located in the front of the lungs and is in its infancy for most. When the 4th chakra begins to open, the thymus begins to grow. At a later stage, it may even be visible on tomography. The growth of the thymus gland is associated with chest pain, suffocation, and again there may be symptoms of bronchitis - pneumonia, in which doctors will mistakenly diagnose influenza or pneumonia.

- Headaches, migraines, runny nose, with sneezing, from morning to evening, for days and months.
- Diarrhea.
- A feeling that the whole body is vibrating - especially when a person is in a relaxed state.
- Intense muscle spasms.
- Tingling - in the arms or legs.
- Loss of muscle strength - in the arms, caused by changes in the circulatory system.
- Sometimes difficulty breathing, need to breathe deeper, feeling of lack of oxygen
- Changes in the immune system
- Changes in the lymphatic system
- Nails and hair grow faster than usual.
- Attacks of depression without any real reason.
- Tension, anxiety and high levels of stress - you feel that something is happening, but you don’t know what it is.

Sometimes signs of diseases that you thought were healed long ago may appear. these are the roots of ailments that have been preserved at other information levels of your body. The disease may even proceed acutely, perhaps in reverse, but faster than it progressed when you were sick. This means that the body gets rid of the disease on a deeper level.

Our body is very intelligent, and often smarter than ourselves!

Now what to do:

Take a walk. Move.

Homeopathy.

Use of essential oils.

Shiatsu massage.

Stretch, stretch, stretch, stretch.

Stretch your muscles.

Do exercises for your neck - head up, down, left and right, put your ear on your shoulder, then on the other...

Breathe, if you feel like it's coming - breathe deeply, as much as you can, as slowly as you can. AND remember this advice for the situation when day X comes(and he will come!) automatically: if anything happens, breathe deeply. If you feel a mental or physical rabbit hole - breathe, remember. If you have time, study pranayama.

Here are some psychophysical symptoms and an attempt to explain how to approach this.

1. Feeling like you are in a pressure cooker of intense energy, stress.
Remember, to adapt to a higher vibration, you must eventually change. Old patterns of behavior and beliefs come to the surface in a conflicting form.

2. Feeling of disorientation, loss of sense of place. You're not in 3D anymore (you're in the army now).

3. Unusual pain in different parts of the body. It is the released previously blocked energies that vibrate in 3D while you vibrate in a higher dimension.

4. Waking up at night between 2 and 4 o'clock. A lot happens to you in your sleep. Therefore, you may sometimes even need a break during these intense processes and wake up.

5. Forgetfulness. You notice how some details fall out of your memory. the fact is that from time to time you are in the border zone, in more than one dimension, hanging back and forth, and physical memory can simply be blocked at these moments.

Besides. The past is part of the old, and the old is gone forever.

6. Loss of identity. You are trying to access your past self, but it is no longer possible. You may sometimes catch yourself feeling like you don't know who it is when looking at yourself in the mirror.

7. Out-of-body experience. You may feel as if someone is talking, but it is not you. This is a natural defense mechanism for survival. When you are under stress, the body experiences a lot of pressure, and you feel as if you are leaving the body at the moment. So you shouldn't experience what your body is going through right now. It lasts moments and passes.

8. Increased sensitivity to the environment. Crowds, noise, food, box, voices - you can hardly stand it all.

You easily fall into a state of depression and, conversely, easily become excited and hyperexcited.

Your psyche is being adjusted.

9. You don't feel like doing anything. This is not laziness or depression, this is a ‘reboot’. Your body knows what it needs.

10. Intolerance of 3D lower vibrational phenomena, conversations, relationships, social structures, etc. They literally make you feel sick. You grow and no longer coincide with much and much of what surrounded you. It will fall away on its own, don’t worry.

11. Sudden disappearance of friends, changes in habits, work and place of residence. You are evolving and these people no longer match your vibration. The new one will come soon and will be much better.

12. Days or periods of extreme fatigue. Your body loses density and undergoes intense restructuring.

13. If you feel low blood sugar attacks, eat more often. On the contrary, you may not want to eat at all.

14. Emotional destabilization, tears. all the emotions that you experienced before and accumulated in yourself come out.

15. Feeling like the roof is moving. It's OK. You open up out-of-body experience and experience of other frequencies - that is, realities. Much has become more accessible to you now. You're just not used to it. Your inner knowledge and intuition grow stronger and barriers disappear.

16. Anxiety and panic. Your ego loses most of itself and is afraid. Your physiological system is experiencing overload. Something is happening to you that you cannot understand.

17. You are also losing the low vibration behavior patterns that you have developed for yourself to survive in 3D.

This can make you feel vulnerable and helpless. You will soon no longer need these patterns and patterns of behavior. Just wait.

18. Depression. The outside world does not correspond to your needs and emotions.

You are releasing dark energies that have been inside of you. Go this way.

19. Dreams. Many people are aware that they are experiencing unusually intense dreams.

20. Unexpected sweat and temperature fluctuations. Your body changes the “heating” system, burns the remnants of the past.

21. Your plans suddenly change in the middle of the journey and you start going in a completely different direction. Your soul is trying to balance your energy. Your soul knows more than you, trust it.

In your CONSCIOUSNESS there are suppressed, unmet needs for KINDNESS, PERFECTION, INTEGRITY, LAW, JUSTICE AND ORDER. Perhaps because of this, you have or may experience such PATHOLOGIES as ANTIPATY, DISTRUST, RELIANCE ONLY ON YOURSELF AND FOR YOURSELF, DISINTEGRATION, ANGER, CYNISM, TOTAL EGOISM.