The role of borrowed words in the Russian language is brief. The meaning of foreign words in Russian. Dictionary of loanwords

The Russian lexical system in its modern form did not emerge immediately. The process of vocabulary formation is long and complex, since it is closely connected with the history of the development of the Russian people. Historical lexicology names two main ways of development of the lexical system:

1) the emergence of original words, i.e. existing for a long time, constantly;

2) borrowing words from other languages.

Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political contacts with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. In the process of use, most of them were influenced by the borrowing language. Gradually, borrowed words, assimilated by the borrowing language, became among the words in common use and were no longer perceived as foreign. In different eras, words from other languages ​​penetrated into languages ​​(Common Slavic, East Slavic, Russian proper) [Otkupshchikov, 1968, p. 39-40]. Currently, words such as sugar, beets, banya, etc. are considered Russian, although they were borrowed from the Greek language. Such words as school (from Latin through Polish), pencil (from Turkic languages), suit (from French) and many others have become quite Russified. The national identity of the Russian language did not suffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, since borrowing is a completely natural way of enriching any language. The Russian language has retained its complete independence and has only been enriched by borrowed words.

Depending on which language certain words came from, two types of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) related borrowings (from the Slavic family of languages) and 2) non-Slavic borrowings (from languages ​​of a different language system). The first type includes borrowings from the related Old Church Slavonic language (sometimes called Old Bulgarian in linguistic literature). The second includes borrowings from Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European (Roman, Germanic, etc.) [Balalykina, 1993, p. 28].

In terms of the time of penetration, the borrowed vocabulary is also heterogeneous: some words in it belong to the period of the Indo-European linguistic community, others to the pan-Slavic linguistic unity, others replenished the language of the Eastern Slavs in the Old Russian period of its existence, and, finally, many words have already entered the Russian vocabulary itself.

At the same time, Russian words entered other languages.

The common basis for all borrowing processes is the interaction between cultures, economic, political, cultural and everyday contacts between peoples speaking different languages. These contacts can be of a massive and long-term nature in conditions of living together in adjacent and not even the same territory, or they can be carried out only through certain strata of society and even through individuals. They can be of the nature of mutual influence or unilateral influence; be of a peaceful nature or take the form of confrontation and even military clashes. No culture developed in isolation: any national culture is the fruit of both internal development and complex interaction with the cultures of other peoples.

When talking about borrowing, a distinction is made between “material borrowing” and “tracing”. In material borrowing (borrowing in the proper sense), not only the meaning (or one of the meanings) of a foreign language lexical unit (or morpheme) is adopted, but also, with varying degrees of approximation, its material exponent. Thus, the word sport in Russian is a material borrowing from the English sport, but also its spelling and (of course, only approximately) sound.

In addition to borrowings themselves, so-called tracing is possible (French calque - “a word or expression modeled on the corresponding units of a foreign language”). When tracing, only the meaning of a foreign language unit and its structure (the principle of its organization) are adopted, but not its material exponent: it is as if a foreign language unit is being copied using one’s own, unborrowed material.

There are tracing papers:

a) word formation, created by copying a foreign language method of word formation. They arise by literal translation into Russian of individual meaningful parts of a word (prefixes, roots, etc.). For example, calques from Latin and Greek are: interjection (Latin inter + jectio), adverb (Latin ad + verbium), spelling (Greek ґьсипт + гсьчш). The Russian word skyscraper is a word-formation tracing paper that reproduces the meaning and structure of English. skyscraper (cf. sky “sky”, scrape “scrape”, “scrape” and suffix -er - suffix of a character or object);

b) semantic, in which the meaning is borrowed. For example, touch (French toucher) in the meaning of “to evoke sympathy”, nail (French le clou) in the combination “the highlight of the program”. In the Slovenian language, the verb brati, along with the common Slavic meaning “to take, gather fruits,” also has the meaning of read. This second meaning is a semantic tracing paper influenced by German. lessen, which (like the Latin lego) combines the meaning of “collect” and “read”.

Derivational tracings are known from Greek, Latin, German, French words, semantic tracings - from French words [Popov et al., 1998, p. 17].

In addition to full lexical (word-formative and semantic) calques, the Russian language also distinguishes semi-calques, i.e. words in which, along with borrowed parts, there are also original Russian ones. According to their word-formation composition, these words are a copy of foreign words. Half-calques include, for example, the word “humanity” (Russian suffix -ost).

Sometimes one part of a word is borrowed materially, and the other is translated. An example of such a semi-calculation is the word television, in which the first part is international, Greek in origin, and the second is the Russian translation of the Latin word visio “vision” or its reflections in modern languages ​​[Vvedensky et al., 1986, p. 48-53].

Among material borrowings, it is necessary to distinguish between oral ones, occurring “by ear”, often without taking into account the written image of the word in the source language, and borrowings from written texts or, in any case, taking into account the written appearance of the word. Oral borrowings are especially characteristic of older historical eras - before the widespread use of writing. Later borrowings are usually associated with more “skilled mastery of a foreign culture, through a book, a newspaper, through the conscious study of the corresponding language” [Sergeeva, 1996, p. 45].

After a borrowed word has entered the language, it begins to “live its own life,” independent, as a rule, from the life of its prototype in the source language. Its sound appearance is even closer to the structures typical of a given language; Thus, in borrowed words of the Russian language, as they are more fully mastered (“Russianized”), hard consonants are replaced before orthographic and palatalized ones (cf., on the one hand, “non-Russified” décolleté, decorum, requiem, secant, timbre , tent, baths, on the other hand, the “Russified” decade, maternity leave, dean, flight, safe, theater, telephone; comparisons of words containing historically the same morphemes, but pronounced differently depending on the degree of “Russification” are especially instructive; : demos (d), but democracy (d,), service (s), but service (s,)). A borrowed word can undergo new grammatical transformations that eliminate the features of “foreignness” (cf. the transition of coats, blinds, etc., which are indeclinable in the literary language, into the category of indeclinable nouns in common speech); it “overgrows” with derivatives, undergoes semantic changes on a par with “original” words and can acquire a completely new meaning [Shaposhnikov, 1997, p. 32].

Due to these two circumstances, borrowed words, as a rule, do not have “support points” in the borrowing language, and when analyzing the origin of these words, one should carefully take into account the peculiarities of their penetration into another language and the specifics of assimilation (adaptation) in it. During the assimilation (adaptation) of borrowings, the sound material of a foreign language is assimilated by substitution, substitution of the sounds of the native language instead of the sounds of a foreign language, and in many cases such substitution is approximate [Olgovich, 1984, p. 26].

Many borrowed words are so mastered by the language that they cease to be felt as foreign, and their foreign origin can only be revealed by etymological analysis.

What language elements are borrowed? The main borrowings are, of course, “nominative”, nominative units, and most of all nouns. Borrowing of function words occurs only occasionally. As part of significant words, roots are borrowed and affixes can be borrowed - word-formative and rarely formative, and under favorable conditions such borrowed affixes can become productive. Thus, many Greek and Latin word-forming affixes have become very productive in many languages. During contacts between closely related languages, formative affixes are sometimes borrowed. For example, the Russian literary language uses suffixes of Church Slavonic origin in its participle system.

Mention should also be made of the process of mastering borrowed words in the Russian language.

Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed object, phenomenon or concept), many foreign words were subject to phonetic, word-formative and semantic changes.

For example, the double vowels eu, ai in Russian are most often rendered as ев and ав: eucalyptus (Greek ґехклерфт), car (German: Automobil), etc.

Changes in word formation primarily include changes in endings, in some suffixes, as well as changes in grammatical gender. Thus, foreign language endings, as a rule, are replaced by Russian ones: decoration (from the French decoration), extravaganza (from the French feerie). Foreign language suffixes that are not commonly used in the Russian language are replaced by more common ones (sometimes also foreign ones): harmonic (from the gr. gbsmnykpt), march (from the germ. marschieren), etc.

Sometimes the gender of borrowed nouns changes: tie (German das Halstuch - neuter), skittle (German der Kegel - masculine), bowling alley (German die Kegelbahn - feminine), font (German die Schrift - feminine) .

Often in the Russian language the original meaning of the word is subject to change: German. der Maler - “artist”, received a new meaning - “painter”, i.e. worker painting buildings, interior spaces, etc.; fr. hazard (“excitement”) - accidentally acquired the meaning of “passion, passion, ardor”; fr. aventure (“adventure, adventure, adventure”), dating back to Lat. adventura - “accident”, used in the meaning of “dubious event, matter”, etc.

However, not all borrowed words are redesigned. There are frequent cases of penetration of foreign words in their original form, for example: genesis (Greek gEneuit - genus, origin), duel, dunes, palm tree, etc. [Otkupshchikov, 1968, p. 49].

The functional and stylistic role of foreign language borrowings is very diverse. Firstly, all the words of this group performed from the very beginning the main nominative function, since they were borrowed together with a certain (most often new) concept. They supplemented terminological systems and were also used as exoticisms in describing national characteristics and to create local flavor. However, it is not uncommon to use them for certain stylistic purposes [Lotte, 1982, p. 50]. The appropriateness of their inclusion in Russian texts of different styles must be carefully thought out each time, since the abuse of foreign language vocabulary leads to the fact that even texts intended for a wide range of readers or listeners may become partially misunderstood and will not achieve their intended purpose.

Every day, communicating with each other, reading books, we inevitably come across a huge number of borrowed words. Most of them are already so familiar to our ears that we don’t even think about the fact that the word could be of foreign origin.

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What is the reason for such an amount of foreign language vocabulary? First of all, borrowing is one of the ways to develop language. Foreign language vocabulary appears as a result of contacts and relationships between peoples. Most often, foreign words are fixed in the Russian language due to the fact that the necessary concept is not yet in the database. In addition, using them, you can more clearly express some Russian words that have many meanings.

All words of the Russian language can be divided into two large groups: native Russian and borrowings, which, in turn, could come either from Old Church Slavonic or from any other languages.

Original Russian words

Originally Russian, or original, words- these are the most ancient lexical units of our language. They were those objects and phenomena that a person regularly encountered in his life. These include designations of household items ( pot, samovar, oven), animals and plants ( wolf, rooster, birch, rowan), types of kinship ( son, daughter, father, grandson), weather phenomena (snow, dew, rainbow) and others ( cunning, young, friend, see). The volume of native Russian vocabulary is approximately two thousand words, which is the core of our language. This vocabulary is used both in writing and in speech, and is the most common.

Borrowing from other languages ​​- this is a completely natural process. It is impossible to avoid it unless the people of the country live completely isolated from the rest of the world. Borrowing vocabulary is the result of relationships between peoples and states.

Most often, words come into the Russian language when the database does not have the necessary concept to correctly and succinctly designate an object, living creature or phenomenon. The vocabulary borrowed for this reason includes many concepts from the fields of technology, science, medicine, sports and others ( philosophy, algebra, therapy, epidermis, bus, basketball, linguistics etc.). Although situations arise when the dictionary already contains the necessary vocabulary, synonymous with a concept that came from another language. In this case, the new lexical unit will be used only to indicate some semantic shade.

However, there are also frequent cases when a borrowed word completely replaces the original word over time. Examples include what came from the Polish language: “ room" (literally translated means a heated room), which completely replaced the original Russian word " " A similar situation occurred with the original word “ armor", which was replaced by the Old German " armor».

The first stages of borrowing - Proto-Slavic and Old Russian

In the history of our country, periods of preferential borrowing followed one after another.

The very first of them were to the pre-Slavic period, approximately from the third millennium BC. e. It was then that the first borrowed words began to appear. Examples are Iranianisms ( master, hut, axe, food), Celticisms ( dough, servant, belly, pit), Germanisms ( buy, cattle, king, regiment), borrowings from Gothic ( cook, excess, treat) and Latin ( bathhouse, cabbage, altar). These lexical units are already so rooted in the Russian language that only professional linguists can understand whether a word was originally Russian or came to us from another language.

Then, after the Slavs moved to Eastern Europe, Balticisms appeared in the language ( ladle, village, tar) and a large number of Scandinavian words, including terms related to trade and navigation ( shark, herring, anchor) and names ( Gleb, Olga, Igor).

With the adoption of Christianity in Rus', Byzantium had a strong influence on the development of the Old Russian language. This explains the appearance of Greek words in many areas of life. These include:

• church vocabulary ( icon, lamp, monastery);
• names of sciences ( history, arithmetic);
• names of animals and plants ( beets, buffalo);
• Christian names ( Evgeniy, Andrey);
• Houseware ( notebook, flashlight).

The second stage - from the Middle Ages to the present day

The Russian dictionary was regularly updated with vocabulary that has Turkic origin. Turkisms appeared most actively in the language during the period of the Golden Horde ( Cossack, guard, shoe, fog, badger, prison, money), as well as in the XVI-XVII centuries. when the influence of the Ottoman Empire on Russia was strongest ( drum, noodles, executioner, chest, oil, ammonia, cast iron). In other periods of time, new words of Turkic origin also appeared, but they were no longer so numerous. The most famous of them are the following: sofa, fawn, jasmine, halva, toddler, pistachio and some others.

From the XVI-XVII centuries. , in addition to Turkisms, many Polonisms (of Polish origin) also appeared. They were used primarily in religious literature and business papers. These include the following: sign, voluntarily, plate, dance, bottle, thing, enemy. And also previously unused structures arose ( if, supposedly, so). Polonisms account for about a thousand words in the modern Russian language.

During the reign of Peter I A huge number of foreign language terms in the field of navigation from the Dutch language have penetrated into the language: ballast, harbor, drift, sailor, flag, rudder. However, a considerable part was also borrowed from other languages: rent, act, salvo, army, port, schooner, barge, office and others.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. active political ties with France contributed to the appearance of borrowed vocabulary from French in our language. The most numerous groups of words of French origin include the following:

At the same time, the Russian dictionary was replenished with terms from Italian and Spanish: guitar, aria, pasta, tenor, currency.

From the beginning of the 20th century to the present the bulk of the borrowed vocabulary is English words. These are terms related to computer technology ( printer, scanner, file, computer), to sports ( volleyball, arm wrestling), to economics and finance ( broker, dealer, voucher) and others ( show, video, presentation).

Distinctive features of foreign language vocabulary

Many lexical units that came to us from other languages ​​have their own distinctive features, by which you can not only find out that a word is a borrowing, but also determine which country it came from. Let's look at the most typical of them.

Greekisms are characterized by combinations ps, ks ( psychologist), initial letters f and e ( phonetics, ethics), as well as the presence of Greek roots auto, tele, aero, filo, grapho, thermo, etc. ( telegraph, biology, autobiography).

Characteristic of Latin origin first letters c and e ( electricity), endings -us and -um ( colloquium, asparagus), prefixes counter-, ex- and ultra- ( ultrasound, counter-revolution).

Borrowings from German differ in combinations of consonants in the roots of the words pcs, xt, ft ( sprats, fine). Words with many consonants in a row also often come from Germany ( guardhouse, leitmotif).

French words often have combinations of vu, kyu, nu, fu, ua at the root ( nuance, fuselage, veil), endings -yor, -ans, -azh, -yazh ( blend, director) or -o, -e, -and if the word is not inflected ( coat, coat, puree, chassis).

English loanwords are unmistakably identified by the endings -ing, -men, -er (leasing, athlete, coach) and letter combinations j, tch (patch, image).

Turkisms are characterized by synharmonism, or consonance of identical vowels ( ataman, emerald).

Using Dictionaries

In order to establish as accurately as possible the origin of a particular word, to find out whether it was borrowed or whether it is originally Russian, you can use an etymological dictionary. The most authoritative publications are considered“Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” (M. Vasmer) and “Historical and Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” (P. Ya. Chernykh). In addition, nowadays it is not difficult to find information on the etymology of any word we are interested in on the Internet: there are a large number of online dictionaries with free access.

In conclusion, let's look at two examples. Suppose we are interested in the question whether volcano borrowed word or not. Since not all of us have an etymological dictionary at hand, we will use the help of the Internet. And upon our request, one of the first results will show that this word is borrowed from Latin, where it was originally the name of the Roman god of fire and blacksmithing, and literally means “fire.”

Another example is the word take . Based on the results of a search in the same dictionary, we will receive information that it is common to Slavic languages ​​and came into Russian vocabulary at the very first, Proto-Slavic stage of development. The literal meaning is “I carry.”

National State University of Physical Culture,

sport and health named after P.F. Lesgafta, St. Petersburg

Department of Public Relations

Course work

Borrowings in Russian

Performer: 1st year student Deshkina A.I.

Scientific adviser:

Ph.D., Art. teacher Rybakova O.B.

St. Petersburg, 2012

Introduction

§ 2.1 Types of borrowing

Conclusion

Introduction

Often, when we use any words, we consider them ours, truly Russian, and sometimes we don’t even think about the origin of these words. But it’s very interesting to get to the bottom of it, to explore the roots of the set of words that we most often use.

Nowadays, the topic of the penetration of foreign words into the Russian language is becoming very relevant. We can say that due to progressive globalization, languages ​​are mixed and the borrowing process is becoming widespread. The use of foreign words in colloquial speech is becoming not only completely familiar, but also ubiquitous. And therefore it is very important to try to understand where which words came from and whether their use is always justified.

Also, I am very interested in this topic, since my passion is learning foreign languages. Often, when I notice similar words in English or German, I get the feeling of a certain thread that, almost imperceptibly for us, connects all the peoples of the world through languages.

It’s amazing to trace the history of your country through changes in language, to see the reflection of events in changes in vocabulary, because language is the best mirror of what is happening in the world around us.

I really love our language, its sonority, expressiveness, and rich vocabulary. But it is composed not only of native Russian words, but also of long-Russified borrowings and recently appeared expressions. And for me the real pleasure is to explore the origins.

The subject of the study is borrowings in the Russian language.

The object of the study is the Russian language, in particular its vocabulary.

Purpose of the study: to study borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language in all aspects.

Research objectives:

Consider the reasons for the penetration of borrowings into the Russian language.

Study routes of penetration and methods of borrowing.

Analyze the history of borrowings depending on the groups of languages ​​from which words are borrowed and the period of borrowing.

Analyze points of view on the penetration of foreign words into the Russian language.

And now let’s plunge into the wonderful depths of our native, great Russian language.

borrowing Russian language

Chapter 1. The process of penetration of borrowings into the Russian language

§ 1.1 Reasons for the penetration of borrowings

There must be some reason for the appearance of borrowed words in any language. Many linguists were studying the reasons for borrowing foreign words at the beginning of the twentieth century. For example, the main reason for borrowing words is the need to name things and concepts. There are other reasons, different in nature - linguistic, social, mental, aesthetic, etc., the need for new linguistic forms, the need for the division of concepts, for a variety of means and their completeness, for brevity and clarity, for convenience and t. There are two large groups of reasons for borrowing. These are extralinguistic, in other words, external linguistic reasons, and intralinguistic, that is, due to the characteristics of the language itself.

“Extralinguistic reasons include the following:”

historical contacts of peoples. When interethnic connections arise, this inevitably leads to the mutual penetration of certain words into the language.

the need to nominate new items and concepts.

innovation of a nation in any particular field of activity. If a certain country is a supplier of products that have no analogues, then linguistic snobbery.

fashion. What appears in fashion usually has a name in some European language, for example French, and since fashion is interesting to almost everyone, these concepts spread to other languages.

saving language resources.

the authority of the source language (this sometimes leads to many languages ​​borrowing from one and the emergence of internationalisms). A striking example here is the English language. Its influence on European languages ​​is so great that such concepts as “Denglish” appear - a mixture of English and German, “Swanglish” - a mixture of Swedish and English, which are most often used in real life.

historically determined increase in certain social strata accepting the new word. For example, the Russian nobility, which actively borrows French words.

Intralinguistic reasons include:

the absence in the native language of an equivalent word for a new object or concept. For example: player, hating, impeachment, etc. As a rule, this reason is the main reason for borrowing.

the tendency to use a single loanword instead of a descriptive phrase. For example: a hotel for auto tourists - a motel, a short press conference for journalists - a briefing, figure skiing - freestyle, or “sniper” instead of “sharp shooter”, “tour” instead of “travel along a circular route”, “sprint” instead of “ sprinting”, etc.

the need to detail the corresponding meaning, designation with the help of a foreign word of some special type of objects or concepts, which until then were called by one Russian word. For example, to denote a servant in a hotel, the French word portier has become stronger in Russian, and the English word “jam” has become stronger to denote a special type of jam (in the form of a thick, homogeneous mass). The need for specialization of objects and concepts leads to the borrowing of many scientific and technical terms. For example, “relevant” along with Russian “essential”, “local” along with Russian “local”, “transformer” along with Russian “converter”, “compression” along with Russian “compression”, “pilot” along with Russian “manage” " and etc.;

the tendency to replenish expressive means, leading to the emergence of foreign language stylistic synonyms: service - service, restriction - limit;

“If borrowed words that form a series united by a common meaning and morphological structure are strengthened in a language, then the borrowing of a new foreign language word similar to the words of this series is greatly facilitated. So, in the 19th century. Russian borrowed the words gentleman and policeman from English; at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. They were joined by an athlete, a record holder, and a yachtsman. A number of words were formed that have the meaning of person and a common element - men. To this still small series, new borrowings began to be added, which today constitute a fairly significant group of nouns: businessman, congressman, crossman.”

§ 1.2 Ways of penetration of foreign words and the development of borrowed vocabulary

There are various ways in which borrowing can enter. The following types are distinguished:

Borrowing orally through spoken communication. Words borrowed in this way are easier to assimilate and master, but some are subject to distortion and folk etymology. So many terms of carpentry in Russian were borrowed from the German language through the communication of craftsmen, from where Werkstatt became the workbench.

The written method through books, newspapers, catalogues, instructions, technical passports of cars, etc. Words borrowed in this way are closer to the originals in sound and meaning, but they continue to remain barbarisms in the borrowing language, retaining some features alien to phonetics and grammar of the borrowing language. For example: landscape, backpack, barrier, parade ground, provisions, flight, painter, mourning, reputation, jury, etc.

Borrowing through intermediaries, i.e. through transfer languages, which can cause a significant change in the sound appearance and meaning of borrowed words. For example, the German “Burgermeister” - “city mayor” directly entered the Russian language as “burgomaster”, and through Polish mediation as “burgomaster”, with the meaning “elder”.

Borrowings are also possible within one language, when a common literary language borrows something from dialects of professional speech, jargons, and vice versa.

Tracing. Borrowed words and expressions, when a foreign language sample is translated in parts by means of one’s own language. Tracings usually appear through books; this is most often the work of translators. This can be explained by German words - “Begriff - concept”, “Vorstellung - representation”, “Auffassung - perception”, “Sprach - Wissenschaft - linguistics”.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that comes from a foreign language must take root in a new language and become firmly part of its vocabulary. This is how many foreign words entered the Russian language: bread, mug, umbrella, shop, cat, horse, dog, monkey, tie, compote, tractor, tank, harbor, sail, icon, church, choir, sports, market, bazaar, music , station, car, goal, hut, glass, herring, soup, cucumber, tomato, cutlet, potato, pan, plate, tea, sugar, etc. Many of them turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.

“When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. sounds missing from it are replaced with the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain in their pronunciation sounds that are absent in a given language - as, for example, in the German words Chance, Restaurant, borrowed from the “prestigious” French language (both words are pronounced “in the French manner” "with a nasal vowel)." In the Russian word jury, borrowed from the same French, a sound that is absent in the Russian language is also pronounced - soft zh. In the word resume, before the final spelling e, a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft (the so-called 3rd softening). Until recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word cafe; Now in this word, like in many others that came from French earlier (pince-nez, muffler, etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. In this way, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language occurs. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace the hard consonants before the spelling e with soft ones. For example, the words decollete, phoneme, timbre, tempo, etc. are pronounced with a solid consonant; with soft - the words topic, maternity leave, flight, theater, telephone, safe, etc., which are more “mastered” in Russian.

“In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how well the external appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological models of the borrowing language.” Words such as sport or station easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of masculine words of the 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house, etc.). But, for example, the word shampoo, having entered the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable category of gender, having as a model both masculine words like horse or fire, and feminine words like rubbish or wormwood; accordingly, the form of the creative work. case was both shampoo and shampoo (later the masculine gender was assigned to this word).

When borrowing, the meaning of a word often shifts. Thus, the French word chance means luck (Tu a de la chance! - You're lucky!), while the Russian word chance means only “the possibility of luck.” The Russian word excitement comes from the French hazard - case; the semantic transition occurred due to the phrase jeu d'hazard - gambling (literally, game of chance). Sometimes the meaning of the word changes beyond recognition. For example, the Russian word idiot comes from the Greek private person; the word barn goes back to the Persian word with the meaning palace (in Russian it entered the language through the Turkic medium).

Generally speaking, a language that finds itself faced with a foreign word denoting some necessary concept that is missing in it (this can be either a new “subject” or a new “idea”) has three possibilities:

borrow this word itself: in this way, borrowings in a narrow sense appear in the language, for example, the Russian fair is a borrowing from German. Jahrmarkt, quorum from lat. quorum, idyll from it. Idulle, poetry from French. ro siye, thrill from Arab. kеjf, design from English. design, etc.;

“to create a new word from one’s morphemes according to the model of a foreign one: in this way word-formative tracings appear in the language: for example, the Russian word linguistics is created according to the model of the German Sprаchwissеnсshaft, oxygen is modeled on the Latin ohugenium, subject is modeled on objeсtum, etc.”

use an existing word to express the desired meaning, giving it a new meaning based on the model of a foreign word that has the same polysemy or the same internal form (this is called semantic tracing); for example, the Russian verb touch acquired the figurative meaning of exciting feelings under the influence of the French toucher, which has both meanings (direct and figurative); Russian words influence and inspiration acquired a modern “abstract” meaning under the influence of French. influence and inspiration.

Chapter 2. History of the penetration of borrowings into the Russian language

§ 2.1 Types of borrowing

In terms of the time of penetration, the borrowed vocabulary is heterogeneous: some words in it belong to the period of the Indo-European linguistic community, others to the pan-Slavic linguistic unity, others replenished the language of the Eastern Slavs in the Old Russian period of its existence, and, finally, many words have already entered the Russian vocabulary itself.

In addition, depending on which language certain words came from, two types of borrowings can be distinguished:

) related borrowings (from the Slavic family of languages). These are borrowings from Old Church Slavonic, then Belarusian, Ukrainian, etc.

) foreign language borrowings (from languages ​​of another language system). For example, from English, German, Greek, etc.

Let's take a closer look at each of these groups.

Among related linguistic borrowings, a significant group of words of Old Church Slavic origin stands out. However, words that came from other Slavic languages ​​- Belarusian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovak, etc. - also played a significant role in enriching the Russian language.

Old Slavonicisms became widespread in Rus' after the adoption of Christianity, at the end of the 10th century. They came from the closely related Old Church Slavonic language, which was used for a long time in a number of Slavic states as a literary written language used to translate Greek liturgical books. Its South Slavic basis organically included elements from the Western and East Slavic languages, as well as many borrowings from Greek. From the very beginning, this language was used primarily as the language of the church (therefore it is sometimes called Church Slavonic or Old Church Bulgarian). In different countries it took on the features of local languages ​​and in this form was used outside the liturgical texts themselves. In the monuments of Old Russian writing (especially in chronicles), there are frequent cases of mixing Old Church Slavonic and Russian languages. This indicated that Old Church Slavonicisms were not alien borrowings and were firmly established in the Russian language as closely related ones.

From the Old Church Slavonic language, for example, church terms came into Russian: priest, cross, rod, sacrifice, etc.; many words denoting abstract concepts: power, grace, harmony, universe, disaster, virtue, etc.

Old Church Slavonicisms borrowed by the Russian language are not all the same: some of them are Old Church Slavonic variants of words that already existed in the Common Slavic language (glad, enemy, etc.); others are actually Old Slavonic (lanits, mouth, persi, truth, etc.); Moreover, the existing original Russian words, synonymous with them, are completely different in their phonetic structure (cheeks, lips, breasts, truth, etc.). Finally, the so-called semantic Old Church Slavonicisms are distinguished, i.e. the words are common Slavic by the time they appeared, but received a special meaning in the Old Church Slavonic language and with this meaning became part of the Russian vocabulary (sin, Lord, etc.).

Old Church Slavonicisms, in comparison with the Russian variants, have sound (for example, incompleteness: gate - gate), morphological (for example, the prefix voz-: to repay) and semantic distinctive features.

“In the Russian language there are borrowings from other closely related Slavic languages, for example from Belarusian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovak, etc. In terms of the time of penetration, they are later than Old Church Slavonicisms. Thus, individual borrowings from the Polish language date back to the 17th-18th centuries. Some of them, in turn, go back to European languages ​​(German, French, etc.). But there are also a lot of actual Polish words (Polonisms).” Among them there are those that are the name of housing, household items, clothing, means of transportation (apartment, belongings, dratva, bike (fabric), bekesha, suede, jacket, carriage, goats); the name of the ranks, type of troops (colonel, old sergeant, recruit, hussar); designation of an action (paint, draw, shuffle, beg); the names of animals, plants, food products (rabbit, parsley, chestnut, periwinkle - plant, bun, fruit, almond, jam), etc. Some polonisms came to the Russian language through the Ukrainian or Belarusian languages ​​(for example, mayevka, silently, pan and etc.).

From the Ukrainian language came the words borscht, feta cheese (reformatted Romanian), bagel, hopak, detvora, etc.

All related Slavic borrowings were close to the Russian language, its system, were quickly assimilated and only etymologically can be called borrowings.

Along with the words of Slavic languages, the Russian vocabulary at different stages of its development also included non-Slavic borrowings, for example, Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European.

Borrowings from the Greek language began to penetrate into the original vocabulary during the period of pan-Slavic unity. “Such borrowings include, for example, the words chamber, dish, cross, bread (baked), bed, cauldron, etc. Borrowings were significant in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later (the so-called East Slavic). These include words from the field of religion: anathema, angel, archbishop, demon, metropolitan, choir, lamp, icon, archpriest, sexton; scientific terms: mathematics, philosophy, history, grammar; everyday terms: tub, bathhouse, lantern, bed, notebook; names of plants and animals: cypress, cedar, beet, crocodile, etc.” Later borrowings relate mainly to the field of art and science: trochee, anapest, comedy, mantle, verse, idea, logic, physics, analogy, etc.

Some Greek words entered the Russian language through other languages ​​(for example, French).

Borrowings from the Latin language played a significant role in enriching the Russian language, especially in the field of scientific, technical, social and political terminology.

“The majority of Latin words came into the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, especially through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, for example: school, auditorium, dean, office, vacation, director, dictation, exam, etc. (In this, the role of special educational institutions.) Many words of Latin origin form a group of international terms, for example: dictatorship, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, proletariat, process, public, revolution, republic, erudition, etc.”

Words from Turkic languages ​​penetrated into the Russian language due to various circumstances: as a result of early trade and cultural ties, as a result of military clashes. Early (Common Slavic) borrowings include individual words from the languages ​​of the Avars, Khazars, Pechenegs, etc., for example: feather grass, jerboa, pearls, idol, palace, beads, etc.

Among the Turkic borrowings, the majority of words are from the Tatar language, which is explained by historical conditions (long-term Tatar-Mongol yoke). “Especially many words remain from military, commercial and everyday speech: caravan, holster, mound, quiver, astrakhan fur, flail, treasury, money, altyn, bazaar, carpet, raisin, watermelon, basin, iron, hearth, epancha, bloomers, sash , sheepskin coat, arshin, grocery, noodles, stocking, shoe, chest, robe, fog, mess and many others. etc.”

Turkic borrowings include almost all the names of the breed or color of horses: argamak (a breed of tall Turkmen horses), roan, dun, bay, karak, brown, brown.

There are relatively few Scandinavian borrowings (Swedish, Norwegian, for example) in the Russian language. Most of them date back to the ancient period. The appearance of these words is due to early trade relations. However, not only words of trade vocabulary penetrated, but also maritime terms and everyday words. This is how the proper names Igor, Oleg, Rurik, individual words like herring, chest, pud, hook, anchor, sneak, pleat, whip, mast, etc. appeared.

“Borrowings from Western European languages ​​form one of the numerous (after Old Church Slavonic) groups. A significant role in the XVII-XVIII centuries. (in connection with the reforms of Peter I) they played words from Germanic languages ​​(German, English, Dutch), as well as from Romance languages ​​(for example, French, Italian, Spanish)."

German includes a number of words from trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art, science, etc.: bill, stamp; corporal, camp, headquarters; tie, boots, workbench, chisel, jointer; spinach; easel, bandmaster, landscape, resort. Some nautical terms are Dutch: iceboat, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, roadstead, flag, fleet, etc.

From English to the 19th century. also included some nautical terms: midshipman, bot, brig, but much more words related to the development of social life, technology, sports, etc. entered the 20th century, for example: “boycott, leader, rally; tunnel, trolleybus, basketball, football, sports, hockey, finish line; steak, cake, pudding”, etc. English words (often in the American version) became especially widespread in the 90s of the twentieth century. in connection with economic, social and political transformations in Russian society. “Borrowings from the end of the twentieth century. touched on different spheres of life: technical (computer, display, file, byte), sports (bobsleigh, overtime, fighter), financial and commercial (barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing), art (remake, talk show, underground, thriller), socio-political (briefing, rating, impeachment, lobby), etc.”

French include individual borrowings from the 18th-19th centuries, such as everyday words: bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, tights; broth, marmalade, cutlet, toilet, as well as words from military vocabulary, art, etc.: attack, artillery, battalion, garrison, cannonade; actor, poster, play, director, etc.

Among other Western European borrowings, musical terminology of Italian origin stands out: aria, allegro, libretto, tenor, bravo, slapstick, sonata, carnival, cavatina; Some everyday words also included: vermicelli, pasta (came through French), gondola, etc. A small number of words came from Spanish: serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, then: caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato, etc.

There are a few borrowings from the Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, blizzard; from Hungarian: bekesha, farmstead.

“In addition to individual words, the Russian language borrowed some word-forming elements. For example, the prefixes a-, anti-, archi- from the Greek language: apolitical, anti-artistic; suffixes -ist, -ism, -er, -ir(at) from Western European languages: ocherkist, bolshevism, boyfriend, militarize”, etc.

§ 2.2 Points of view on the borrowing process

At all times and in almost all countries, borrowing is treated in two ways: either borrowing is good, not scary for the Russian language, in particular, it enriches it; or borrowing is a threat to the very existence of the national language and leads to a loss of identity. A similar divergence of opinions is observed in our country. Moreover, these views were reflected in such movements as Slavophilism and Westernism.

It is obvious that borrowing words from other languages ​​is a natural, necessary and really existing process, which is determined by international relations. This is the result of language contacts, relationships between peoples and states.

However, the question of the relationship between “one’s own” and “their”, and the use of borrowings in Russian speech has always caused heated discussions and fierce debate.

M.V. wrote about this for the first time. Lermontov: “Take care of the properties of your own language, because what we love in the Latin, French or German style is sometimes worthy of laughter in Russian.”

It was in the 18th century that the debate about borrowing arose. About a hundred years later, when in the first half of the 19th century linguistics became an independent science, the problem of foreign words in Russian speech became even more acute. Moreover, not only scientists, but also critics and writers expressed their opinions.

A.N. Tolstoy wrote: “A certain percentage of foreign words grows into the language. And in each case, the artist’s instinct must determine this measure of foreign words, their necessity. It’s better to say elevator than self-lifter, telephone than long-distance talk, proletariat than beggars, but where you can find a native Russian word, you need to find it.”

The same idea is expressed by V.G. Belinsky: “The word wet shoes could very well express the concept expressed by the word galoshes, which is completely meaningless for us; But you can’t force a whole people to say wetshoes instead of galoshes if they don’t want it!” He said it very well: “Purists are afraid of an unnecessary flood of foreign words: a fear that is more than unfounded. An unnecessary word will never stay in the language, no matter how hard you try to introduce it into use.”

V.I. expressed a negative attitude towards borrowing. Dahl, creator of the famous Russian language dictionary. He proposed replacing foreign words with Russian synonyms: muffler - nose-hideer, gymnastics - dexterity, confectioner - sweetener.

Now what Dahl proposed seems ridiculous, because the above words have firmly entered the Russian language, and we do not feel their foreignness. An example of the second attitude can be the great Russian critic V.G. Belinsky, who argued that borrowings are not dangerous for the Russian language.

Alexander Solzhenitsyn had a negative attitude towards borrowing. In the novel “In the First Circle,” one of the characters preaches a negative attitude towards foreign words, replacing them with Russian formations. Although even he cannot do without borrowing.

Computerization and the “internetization” of society have led to a huge number of English words breaking through the global network into oral speech. This is precisely what concerns Russianists: the use of Anglicisms in online communication today has become more than just a fashionable hobby. Increasingly, bearers of the “great” and “powerful” simply cannot express thoughts other than with the help of borrowed words. It is obvious that the Russian language in which communication is conducted on forums and on social networks will be incomprehensible to a village resident or an elderly professor. But what happens with borrowed words on the Internet is very similar to the system of occurrence of foreign words described above.

Just look at the use of two foreign words: “flood”, which means a meaningless message, the text of which does not carry any semantic meaning, and “ban” - blocking a user on the forum, prohibiting him from sending messages.

“Native speakers of the Russian language not only use these words, they transform them, as a result of which such new formations as “flood” appear - write meaningless messages or “fludilnya”, which is used in the context of “not to make a flood”, “not to make a flood”, ban - that is, prohibit someone from sending messages.”

These words, which exist in the slang of Internet users, are a clear illustration of the ability of the language system to accept, assimilate and process new information. The language controls its system and its purity, but people themselves have a significant influence on the development of the language.

“There are borrowings in every language. In some there is more, in others there is less, but nothing can be done about them, no matter how hard you try. After all, foreign words, as a rule, are international, international, they denote terms and objects common to a given people, a given culture and a given language with other cultures and peoples. And for this reason alone, in order not to remain in closed solitude and isolation from the common paths of humanity, one should not avoid them, and, probably, it is impossible.”

What original words can be used to replace kimono, ikebana, mistral, corsets, bowls, and who would even think of it?

Finally, not a single language of science, art, politics, law, music, or sports is conceivable without them.

And how can we do without a coat, muffler, briefcase (briefcase), hat, umbrella, cars, trams, subways, trolleybuses, coffee, tea, cigarettes, cigarettes, purses - the foreigners we need, many of whom have left and been forgotten along with the objects, are blowing archaic, found in literature - boucles, puffs, liveries, jackets, stacks, boots, muffs, corsets, but many appeared quite recently? And so it goes on all the time: some come, others leave, some of them stay for a long time and forever, they get used to it, consider it family, some are just a guest, who sat, stayed and went home. Is it worth it to indiscriminately kick them out, replacing them with our own, home-grown and not accepted language?

However, recently the flow of borrowings is so great that it makes us think seriously about the future of the Russian language. The oral speech of a Russian person turns out to be filled with English and American expressions that are not of the best quality. The wave of foreign language borrowings that poured into our language thanks to a number of historical events and technological discoveries made it almost impossible to use colloquial vocabulary without the use of borrowings. Moreover, the process of globalization and the development of high technologies makes the process of penetration of borrowings almost endless.

This situation makes us seriously concerned about the development of the Russian language. Borrowings must be treated with great caution, since in our time there is a tendency to increase the amount of foreign language vocabulary in our language.

Conclusion

So, while studying borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language, we first studied the reasons for the penetration of foreign words into our speech. We examined two large groups of these reasons: linguistic and extralinguistic, and found out the meaning of each of them. Both groups have equal importance when borrowing and are determined by the characteristics of the language itself.

Next, we analyzed the ways in which borrowings penetrate into the Russian language and the ways in which the language masters borrowed vocabulary. Borrowings penetrate our language due to completely natural processes and in any case undergo some processing before they are finally incorporated into speech.

At the next stage, we analyzed the types of borrowings depending on their origin. We found that borrowed vocabulary is heterogeneous in time of appearance. In addition, borrowed words penetrated into the Russian language at certain times due to various circumstances.

Next, we examined opinions regarding the penetration of foreign language vocabulary into the Russian language. At all times, there have been disputes regarding this phenomenon. They continue to this day. Moreover, the increasing flow of borrowings raises more and more new questions and disagreements.

Borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development. Lexical borrowing enriches the language and usually does not harm its originality at all, since the basic, “own” vocabulary is preserved. And besides, despite the inevitable penetration of borrowings, the grammatical structure inherent in the language remains unchanged, and the internal laws of linguistic development are not violated.

Borrowing does not mean the language is poor. If borrowed words and their elements are assimilated by the language according to its own norms, transformed according to the needs of the “taking” language, then this testifies precisely to the strength and creative activity of this language. Borrowing words - a living, developing, fruitful process - occurs in our time. It became especially active in the era of scientific and technological revolution, when, in connection with the development of science and technology, a powerful flow of terms, special words and expressions that exist in various spheres of human activity poured into the language.

Nowadays, we cannot imagine our speech without words. Which are actually borrowings. Various trends are observed in the modern language, and only time will tell what changes our great Russian language will undergo in the future and how this will affect our speech.

List of used literature

1.Ed. A. Pain. Russian language - theory and practice. Tutorial. Minsk. "POTURRI" 2000

.Demyanov V.G. Foreign language vocabulary in the history of the Russian language of the 11th-17th centuries. Problems of morphological adaptation. The science. Moscow. 2001

.Efremova T.F. Explanatory dictionary of word-formation units of the Russian language. Moscow. 1996

.Krysin L.P. Russian word, one’s own and someone else’s: studies in modern Russian language and sociolinguistics. Moscow. 2004

.Marinova E.V. Foreign language vocabulary of the modern Russian language. The science. Moscow. 2012

.Rosen E.V. How do words appear? History and modernity. "MARCH". Moscow. 2000

.Semyonova M.Yu. Dictionary of Anglicisms. Rostov-on-Don. 2003

.Chistyakova O.N. Borrowings in modern Russian language. KSU Publishing House. Kazan. 2001

.Explanatory dictionary of modern Russian language. Language changes at the end of the twentieth century. Astrel. 2005

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From Slavic languages ​​( Old Slavonicisms, Church Slavonicism And Slavicisms)

Church Slavonic language for about ten centuries it represented the basis of religious and cultural communication among the Orthodox Slavs, but was very far from everyday life. The Church Slavonic language itself was close, but did not coincide, either lexically or grammatically, with the national Slavic languages. However, its influence on the Russian language was great, and as Christianity became an everyday phenomenon, an integral part of Russian reality, a huge layer of Church Slavonicisms lost their conceptual foreignness (names of the months - January, February, etc., heresy, idol, priest and others)

From non-Slavic languages

Greekisms

A noticeable mark (some believe the largest) was left Greekisms who came to Old Russian language mainly through Old Church Slavonic in connection with the process of completing the Christianization of the Slavic states. Played an active role in this process Byzantium. The formation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language begins.

Turkisms

Words from Turkic languages have penetrated the Russian language since Kievan Rus neighbored with such Turkic tribes as Bulgars, Cumans, berendei, Pechenegs and others. Approximately the 8th-12th centuries include such Old Russian borrowings from Turkic languages ​​as boyar, tent, hero, pearl, kumiss, band, cart, horde. It is worth noting that historians of the Russian language often disagree about the origin of certain borrowings. Thus, in some linguistic dictionaries the word horse is recognized as a Turkic word, while other experts attribute this word to native Russian.

Latinisms

TO XVII century translations appeared from Latin language on Church Slavonic, including Gennady Bible. Since then, Latin words have begun to penetrate into the Russian language. Many of these words continue to exist in our language to this day (bible, doctor, medicine, lily, rose and others).

Borrowings under Peter I

The flow of borrowed foreign language vocabulary characterizes the reign of Peter I.

Peter's transformative activity became a prerequisite for the reform of the literary Russian language. The Church Slavonic language did not correspond to the realities of the new secular society. The penetration of a number of foreign words, mainly military and craft terms, the names of some household items, new concepts in science and technology, in maritime affairs, in administration and in art, had a huge impact on the language of that time. Dutch words appeared in the Russian language mainly in Peter's times in connection with the development of navigation.

At the same time, terms from the field of maritime affairs were also borrowed from the English language: barge, boat, brig, whaleboat, midshipman, schooner, cutter and others.

From the German language came: “flask” (Flasche), “volley” (Salve).

It is known, however, that Peter himself had a negative attitude towards the dominance of foreign words and demanded that his contemporaries write “as intelligibly as possible,” without abusing non-Russian words. So, for example, in his message to Ambassador Rudakovsky, Peter wrote:

“In your communications you use a lot of Polish and other foreign words and terms, from which it is impossible to understand the matter itself: for this reason, from now on you should write all your communications to us in Russian, without using foreign words and terms.”

Borrowings in the 18th-19th centuries

He made a great contribution to the study and streamlining of foreign borrowings M. V. Lomonosov, who in his work “Anthology on the History of Russian Linguistics” outlined his observations about Greek words in the Russian language, in general, and in the field of the formation of scientific terms in particular:

“...Avoiding foreign language borrowings, Lomonosov at the same time sought to promote the rapprochement of Russian science with Western European science, using, on the one hand, international scientific terminology, composed mainly of Greco-Latin roots, and on the other hand, forming new Russian terms or rethinking already existing words"

Lomonosov believed that the Russian language had lost its stability and linguistic norm due to the “clogging” of the living spoken language with borrowings from a variety of languages. This prompted Lomonosov to create “Preface on the benefits of church books,” in which he manages to lay the foundations of the Russian language corresponding to the time. Active political and social ties with France in the 18th-19th centuries contributed to the penetration of a large number of borrowings from the French language into the Russian language. French becomes the official language of courtly aristocratic circles, the language of secular noble salons. Borrowings from this time include names of household items, clothing, food products: bureau, boudoir, stained glass, couch; shoe, veil, wardrobe, vest, coat, muffler, saucepan, shag, broth, vinaigrette, jelly, marmalade; words from the field of art: actor, entrepreneur, poster, ballet, juggler, director; terms from the military field: battalion, garrison, pistol, squadron; socio-political terms: bourgeois, declassed, demoralization, department and others.

Italian and Spanish borrowings are associated mainly with the field of art: aria, allegro, bravo, cello, novella, piano, recitative, tenor or guitar, mantilla, castanets, serenade, as well as with everyday concepts: currency, villa; vermicelli, pasta.

By the end of the 18th century, the process of Europeanization of the Russian language, carried out mainly through the French culture of the literary word, reached a high degree of development. The old-language language culture was supplanted by the new European one. The Russian literary language, without leaving its native soil, consciously uses Church Slavonicisms and Western European borrowings.

Borrowings in the XX--XXI centuries

Linguist L. P. Krysin in his work “On the Russian Language of Our Days” he analyzes the flow of foreign language vocabulary at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. In his opinion, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the intensification of business, scientific, trade, cultural ties, the flourishing of foreign tourism, all this caused an intensification of communication with native speakers of foreign languages. Thus, first in professional, and then in other fields, terms related to computer technology appeared (for example, computer, display, file, interface, printer and others); economic and financial terms (for example, barter, broker, voucher, dealer and others); names of sports (windsurfing, skateboarding, arm wrestling, kickboxing); in less specialized areas of human activity (image, presentation, nomination, sponsor, video, show).

Many of these words have already been completely assimilated into the Russian language.

The Role of Borrowed Words in the Russian Language Borrowing foreign words is one of the ways to develop a modern language. Language always responds quickly and flexibly to the needs of society. Borrowings become the result of contacts, relationships between peoples, professional communities, and states. The main reason for borrowing foreign language vocabulary is the absence of a corresponding concept in the cognitive base of the receptor language. Other reasons: the need to express polysemantic Russian concepts with the help of a borrowed word, to replenish the expressive means of the language, etc. By the nature and volume of borrowings in the Russian language, one can trace the paths of the historical development of the language, that is, the paths of international travel, connections and scientific development, and, as a consequence, the crossing of Russian vocabulary and phraseology with other languages. Observing the transition of words and phrases from any foreign language into the Russian language helps to understand the history of the Russian language, both literary and dialects. It is necessary to distinguish between borrowings and foreign words. Borrowings (words, less often syntactic and phraseological phrases) are adapted into the Russian language and undergo the necessary semantic and phonetic changes. Adaptation to the realities of the Russian language is the main feature that distinguishes borrowings from foreign words. Foreign words retain traces of their foreign origin. Such traces can be phonetic, spelling, grammatical and semantic features. In the history of the language there were periods of predominant borrowing: - from Germanic languages ​​and Latin (pre-Slavic period); -from Greek, and then the Old/Church Slavonic language (the era of Christianization, further book influence); -from Turkic languages ​​(throughout history); -from the Polish language (XVI-XVIII centuries) - Polonisms; -from the Dutch (XVIII), German and French (XVIII-XIX centuries) languages; -from the English language (from the beginning of the 20th century). In addition to borrowing foreign language vocabulary, the Russian language actively borrowed some foreign language word-forming elements to create Russian words themselves. Among such borrowings, special mention should be made: _prefixes a-, anti-, archi-, pan- and others from the Greek language (apolitical, antiworlds, archipluts, pan-Slavism); de-, counter-, trans-, ultra- from Latin (degerization, counter-offensive, trans-regional, ultra-right); -suffixes: -ism, -st, -izir-a (t), -er from Western European languages: collectivism, essayist, militarize, boyfriend. At the same time, these word-formation elements are often used in the Russian language together with a word-formation model, which is characteristic of foreign words or elements of this model (conductor, trainee and boyfriend with a French suffix). This reveals the pattern of introduction of foreign language borrowings into the Russian language and their active assimilation to the borrowed language. Thus, the formation of foreign language structural elements as independent morphemes in the Russian language occurs, in other words, the process of morphemization is carried out. It is clear that this is a long-term, gradual process, involving a number of steps and stages in the acquisition of morphemic properties in the Russian language by a foreign language structural element.