During the era of the Roman Empire, the pantheon of gods, recognized as the official religion, expanded. It included the cults of the Egyptian gods Isis and Serapis, Asia Minor Ma-Bellona, \u200b\u200bthe Iranian god Mithra, especially popular among warriors, and a number of Syrian solar cults. There were other cults, among which Judaism stood out and prevailed by the 4th century. Christianity. A special place was occupied by the cult of the emperors. The diversity of the empire's religious life was reflected in the cult architecture, where, along with temples to the ancient Roman gods, temples to deified emperors, eastern gods, mithraeums and synagogues were built. Most of the temples of the 1st-2nd centuries. dedicated to the main gods of the Roman pantheon and emperors. Old churches were often rebuilt in new forms. In the imperial period, the temples basically repeated the types used in the republic - prostyle, Italian type and peripter in its Roman version. Depending on the frequency of setting the columns and, accordingly, their changing proportions, the peripters of several types differed. The most common were temples with intercolumnia 1.5; 2 and 2.25 column diameters defined by Vitruvius as pycnostile, systyle and eustil. They were distinguished from republican temples by their larger scale, the predominant use of the ceremonial Corinthian or composite order instead of the modest Doric and Ionic order, the close arrangement of columns on the facades and the use of expensive materials - marble, porphyry and granite for wall cladding, for columns and details. Due to the traditional nature of the main types in the cult architecture of the empire, the searches of architects focused mainly on the development of the decor of temples. The small preservation of the temples of this era does not allow to form a sufficiently complete picture of them.
The main temples of ancient Rome were concentrated in the city center at the Roman forum (Fig. 33, 34).
| 33. Rome. Plan of the Roman Forum in the imperial period: 1 - Basilica Emilia; 2 - curia; 3 - Temple of Concordia; 4 - the temple of Vespasian; 5 - portico; 6 - the temple of Saturn (repository of the state treasury); 7 - arch of Septimius Severus; 8 - arch of Tiberius; 9 - rostras: 10 - memorial columns; 11 - Basilica Julia; 12 - lobby of the imperial palaces; 13 - temple of the Dioscuri; 14 - arch of Augustus; 15 - the temple of Julius; 16 - the temple of Vesta; 17 - atrium of the Vestals; 18 - Regia; 19 - the temple of Antonin and Faustina; 20 - heroon Romulus; 21 - Basilica of Maxentius; 22 - lobby of the Golden House; 23 - arch of Titus; 24 - temple of Venus and Roma | |
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Temple of Julius Caesar, the first of the temples built by Augustus, was dedicated to the deified Julius Caesar and erected in 29 BC. at the Roman Forum, limiting it from the east (Fig. 35). It was still a modest prostyle of the Ionic order. The front of the pod receded in the center, skirting the circular altar that marked the site of Caesar's cremation. The podium ledges on the sides of the altar, decorated with rostras of enemy ships, served as tribunes for orators. They replaced the tribunal that previously existed here, which was located opposite the rostrum in the western part of the forum and was demolished during the construction of the temple.
The style of the early empire is characterized by a monumental marble altar of Peace, built in 13 BC. on the occasion of the victories of Augustus in Spain and Gaul, who completed the pacification of the empire (Fig. 36). Placed near the altar of the god of war Mars, it was a rectangular fence 11.63X10.62 m in size and 6 m high, in the center of which there was an altar on a stepped pedestal.
Openings in the western and eastern walls of the fence opened a through passage past the altar. The outer walls of the fence, marked at the corners and at the openings with ornamented pilasters, were covered with floral ornaments below. The upper parts of the southern and northern walls contained relief images of the procession of Augustus with his retinue to the altar for sacrifice. The theme of movement to the altar was interrupted by panels on the end sides of the entrances.
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| 37. Rome. Temple of Mars Ultor, 2 BC Modern look, cornice detail, entablature profiles: A - upper kimatiy of the caisson; B - second kimatiy of the caisson; B - quarter shaft with ionics at the base of the caisson; G - kimatius, crowning architrave; D - beads between the architrave fascia | |
The immense scale of the Empire's structures manifested itself in the temple of Mars Ultor at the Forum of Augustus (2 BC, fig. 37). With a facade 35 m wide, the columns reached a height of about 18 m. The slender eight-column pycnostile of the Italic type was complemented by an apse located above the floor level and closing the main axis of the temple and the entire forum. A distinctive feature of the interior, the wooden ceiling of which was carried by the walls of the cella, was the decorative colonnades along the walls. The whiteness of the marble walls and columns, the beautiful forms of the classical Roman-Corinthian capitals, the caissons of the portico and the skillful carving of the entablature gave solemnity to the monumental dynastic temple of the Julius.
It was close to the temple of Mars Ultor in size (30x50 m), slender proportions, order and decor temple of the Dioscuri at the Roman Forum, reconstructed in B.C. (Fig. 38, 39). Like the neighboring temple of Julius, the temple of the Dioscuri, which was a peripter, was also adapted for speeches. The front part of his podium, which had no steps, served as a platform to which people climbed up the side stairs. A wide flight of stairs led to the cella level. The podium protrusions on its sides served as pedestals for the equestrian statues of Castor and Pollux. The exquisite capitals of the temple with intertwining medium curls are peculiar.
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| 41. Roman Forum. Temple of Concordia, early 1st century AD Plan, profiles (according to Tebelmann): A - crowning jib; B - kimatiy over the remote plate; B - remote plate; G - caisson; D - modons; E - ionics and beads between modons and teeth; F - kimatiy over the frieze; 3 - top profile of architrave |
At the same time, the ancient concordia temple (Fig. 40, 41), repeating the transverse location of the cella the republican temple of Vejova. Cella (45X24 m) obscured the Tabularia substructures. The Corinthian capitals of the six-column portico are unusual - instead of volutes, they contain double ram heads. The remains of the cornice testify to its high artistic quality: the clearly expressed tectonics of the elements was combined with the picturesqueness of the lush vegetative ornament revived by chiaroscuro and the excellent quality of marble carving. The mature perfection of the decoration of these temples marked the heyday of Augustan classicism.
By the 2nd half of the 1st century. the decor has lost its classical clarity of construction. In the adjacent to the Temple of Concordia forgiving the temple of Vespasian (79), which obscured the stairs from the forum to the Capitol, cornice modulons, densely covered with plant motifs, sink into the ornament and are no longer perceived as load-bearing elements. The character of the marble carving has also changed: the ornamentation is cut deeply, but flatly, and a number of priestly household items on the frieze are treated with dry naturalism (Fig. 42, 43).
From the 2nd half of the 1st century. in some temples, there is a departure from traditional forms. Two places of worship at the Forum of Pompeii are unusual in plan (see page 430. Plan of the Forum of Pompeii). One of them is the Temple of Vespasian, which did not have a portico and was divided into three parts - a vestibule with flat edicules on the walls, the middle part and behind it - three service rooms. The middle part played the role of a pronaos, at the back wall of which, on an elevation, there was an aedicle, replacing the cella (Fig. 44). The city laras, located next to the temple of Vespasian, apparently reproduced on a large scale the device of private larariums. It opened towards the forum, with an altar in the center, an apse along the main axis, and two rectangular exedra near the entrance.
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| 46. \u200b\u200bPantheon. Facade |
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| 47. Pantheon. Longitudinal section, plan |
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It took a special place in Roman and world architecture Pantheon - the temple of "all gods", in the capital of the empire. The appearance of the Pantheon and its scale sharply distinguish it from the round peripters that preceded it (Fig. 45).
Most of the Roman temples-rotunda of the era of the empire were dedicated to the imperial cult. At the end of the 1st century. BC. the first Pantheon was built by the architect Valery Ostia by order of Agrippa. The remaining remains of it are insignificant. It probably had a round shape and was dedicated to all the gods, but primarily to Mars and Venus, the patrons of the Julian imperial family. Apparently, the desire to preserve the continuity of traditions was one of the main reasons that forced the architect of the Pantheon (he was, in all likelihood, Apollodorus of Damascus, although it is believed that the authorship belongs to the Emperor Hadrian) to give it a round shape. The Pantheon was built in 118-128, the later restorations by Antoninus Pius, Septimius Severus and Caracalla did little to change its appearance. It was erected on the Champ de Mars, about the same distance from the city center as the Colosseum, and served as a kind of counterweight to it.
The building consists of three parts: a domed rotunda, a rectangular portico adjoining it from the north, and a transitional element between them, which has the height of the rotunda and the width of the portico (Fig. 46, 47). A staircase of five steps, equal in width, led to the portico. As the excavations showed, in front of the Pantheon there was a rectangular elongated paved courtyard surrounded by porticos with propylae on the axis of the temple's portico and a triumphal arch in the center of the courtyard (Fig. 48). The giant rotunda has an inner diameter of 43.5 m and a spherical dome with a diameter of 43.2 m. The dome exceeds in size not only all such constructions of antiquity, but also of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and modern times until the 19th century. The Pantheon is the most monumental example of a domed building from the Roman era.
The development of dome building in Roman architecture was associated with the domed halls of nympheans and baths. The rotunda of the Mercury baths in Bayah (1st century AD) with a dome diameter exceeding 20 m was in this respect the prototype of the Pantheon. But the domed halls of the thermal baths have always been part of the complex of buildings, while in the Pantheon, for the first time, a cylindrical domed volume of enormous dimensions acquired an independent significance.
The diameter of the rotunda is equal to its height, which is half the height of the building - the ratio recommended by Vitruvius (Fig. 48).
The rotunda rests on a ring foundation 7.3 m wide and 4.5 m deep. The spacing of the dome determined a significant thickness of the concrete wall with brick lining of 6.3 m (1/7 of the rotunda diameter), which is dissected by large niches into eight giant pylons (Fig. . 49). The eight main niches are 8.9 m wide and 4.5 m deep, with their rear walls 1.8 m thick. The niches lighten the wall by 1/3 of its volume. In addition, eight pylons are broken up by small voids (in the form of reverse sealed niches) into 16 radial buttresses. This greatly facilitated the volume of the wall and turned it into a rigid frame of 16 supports alternating with thin sections of the wall.
Large niches are covered with powerful brick arches of double curvature, which connect the pylons to each other and create a continuous annular support for the dome. Smaller arches not only connect the larger ones, complementing the dome support system, but also relieve the lower tier entablature from the pressure of the dome mass. The system of arched structures also includes arches in the lower zone of the dome itself, whose task is to transfer the dome pressure only to the pylons. Thanks to this, there is almost no inert mass in the wall of the Pantheon. The wall is a multi-tiered arcade, the skilful construction of which ensured the excellent preservation of the monument in seismic conditions for millennia.
The dome is cast from horizontal layers of concrete reinforced with brick arches in the lower zone. A careful study of the structure of the dome refuted the misconception, which comes from Piranesi and repeated by Viollet le Duc, Choisy and others, about the presence in the dome of the Pantheon of a frame made of brick arches above the second row of caissons from the bottom *. The composition of the concrete varies with the height of the dome. In the lower parts of the dome, the concrete was filled with hard travertine chips, and in the upper parts - chips of tuff and light pumice. The caissons of the dome, cast simultaneously with it, play an important role. Covering its surface in five rows to a height of 60 ° from the base, they leave smooth space around the round window - opion, the diameter of which is 8.92 m. Correspondingly to the decrease in circumference, the upper caissons are half the size of the lower ones. The caissons dissect the surface of the dome and lighten it by about 1/6 of its weight, and their perspective reduction visually increases the height of the dome. In general, the construction of the Pantheon can be described as a dome on an arcade.
* W. Macdonald. The architecture of the Roman Empire, New Haven, 1965, p. 105
The outer divisions of the rotunda are very simple: the lower horizontal protrusion reflects the boundary between the first and second tiers of the wall, and the second marks the beginning of the dome, i.e. the boundary between the bearing and the bearing parts of the structure. The wall in the lower part was probably faced with marble, and in the upper part it was plastered. The third projection corresponds to the transition from the annular wall around the base of the dome to seven stepped ledges loading the lower part of the vault (Fig. 50). The surface of the dome was covered with gilded tiles.
Inside the building is divided by four rectangular and three semicircular niches. Opposite the middle semicircular niche there is a cut of the entrance arch repeating its outlines. The lower tier of the wall is 13 m high and is decorated with columns and pilasters of the Corinthian order (Fig. 51). The second tier is an attic 8.7 m high, until the 18th century. dissected by colored marble pilasters.
The interior of the Pantheon is dominated by the hemisphere of its grandiose dome. The impression of the unity of the spatial whole is enhanced by the balance between its vertical and horizontal dimensions. A single undivided space is encompassed by a powerful sphere perceived as a symbolic image of the celestial sphere. Ancient authors directly write about this understanding of the overlap of the Pantheon. This is what determined the special role of the dome in the construction of the Pantheon, different from the role that the dome played in utilitarian buildings.
An important role belongs to the order system introduced into the first tier of the temple. The columns supporting the entablature cover huge niches and thus contribute to the creation of a single internal space of the Pantheon. Without them, it would have been fragmented, the scale changed, and the grandeur of the inner space would not have been revealed. The attic belt, loosened only above the niche opposite the entrance, forms an organic transition from the wall to the sphere. The attic tier is perceived as part of the dome, further emphasizing its role in the interior of the Pantheon.
The prevalence of the dome does not mean that with its mass it pressed on the person inside the temple. The architect strove to create the impression of lightness in the structure of the ceiling. In addition to caissons, this purpose was served by order divisions of the wall. Obviously not designed to carry the true mass of the dome, they nevertheless gave the viewer the impression of the lightness of the sphere ascended over them. This was especially true of the small pilasters of the upper tier, which looked like a dome support.
A special role was assigned to the only light hole located at the highest point of the Pantheon dome. The centricity of the room, its huge size, the shine of the column of light in the center and the twilight on the “periphery” of the rotunda not only created the impression of calmness and concentration, but also made the worshiper in the church perceive the sky and sunlight with a special feeling. The column of light pouring from the sky through the opion, around which the internal space of the Pantheon unfolds, is the real core of the composition (Fig. 52, 53). To understand how the Roman should have perceived such a decision of the interior space of the temple, one must remember that for him the supreme deity - Jupiter - was not so much an anthropomorphic creature as the firmament itself.
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| 51. Order of the Pantheon. Corinthian order: a - entrance portico; b - the lower tier of the interior; в - the upper tier of the interior; d - pilasters of the entrance portico | |
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The inner space of the Pantheon is huge and, like in any centric building from any point of view (except for the central one), it seems larger than it actually is: There are no corners, no straight contours, only a huge hemisphere and a uniform rhythm of columns, walls and niches. This is not like the solution to the interior of the temple, which is familiar to a Roman. In the Pantheon, a fundamentally new solution to the sacred building was given, which fundamentally broke with the traditions of the ancient perception of the temple. An ordinary Greek and Roman temple is the house of a deity, access to which for an ordinary person is, if not prohibited, then difficult. Only the priest entered freely. All others were outside at the time of the religious ceremony. A completely different solution was proposed by the architect of the Pantheon. The person praying was inside, he was surrounded on all sides by the space that is considered sacred. Here a different, non-antique understanding of the inner space of the temple already appears. The growing role of religion towards the end of the ancient period, new forms of it forced to rethink the architectural forms of the temple. The movement of the believer inward can be seen in many temples of the mystery cults. The principle is the same here, the difference is only in the size and shape of space. Reflecting new trends in the development of religious ideology, the Pantheon became one of the prototypes of the Christian centric temples of the Byzantine era, the most striking example of which is the Temple of Sophia in Constantinople.
The entrance to the Pantheon is a portico 14 m deep (Fig. 54). It is covered with a gable roof on bronze rafters, it is supported by 16 columns with a diameter of 1.5 m and a height of 14 m. There are eight columns along the facade, the rest, arranged in a row of four in each, divide the space of the portico into three parts. This division of the portico corresponds to the division of the facade of a rectangular projection, which is a transitional element from the portico to the rotunda.
The entrance to the Pantheon is flanked by two large semicircular niches, in one of which stood the statue of Augustus, and in the other, Agrippa. On the whole, this is extremely reminiscent of the division of the celles of an ordinary Roman temple, but the central element here is turned into a passage. Naturally, the visitor developed associations linking the architectural elements of the Pantheon with familiar and familiar images. They forced him to perceive in a new way the very inner space of the Pantheon, to see in it an immensely expanded and re-solved cella of a traditional temple.
The introduction of the portico was intended to give an axial orientation to the centric building of the Pantheon. The search for Roman architects in solving this problem is illustrated by the republican temple B on Largo Argentina. The further development of these searches was reflected in the architecture of the Pantheon. Here the transitional element appeared, which made it possible to push the portico forward.
Finally, the strongest frontal axial orientation was given to the temple by a colonnaded rectangular courtyard 110 m long, preceded by a relatively high and wide portico. All these architectural elements, which narrowed the field of view when approaching the Pantheon, masked the rotunda and adjusted the visitor to a familiar perception. The stronger was the effect of architecture and sunlight: from the bright sun of the colonnaded courtyard, the visitor passed to the shade of the deep portico and to the semi-darkness of the passage behind it, and then suddenly again to the sun and the vastness of the inner space of the Pantheon.
In the Pantheon, the engineering and architectural thought of ancient Rome found its highest expression, prepared by previous searches and finds of Roman architects (the development of a rotunda, a dome of a large diameter, the application of a traditional axial composition to a centric building). The Pantheon was the model followed by many of the later built rotundas. 35 years later, a smaller temple of this type (Zeus Asklepios) was being built in Pergamum. The influence of the Pantheon is most pronounced in ostian rotunda (dome diameter 18.35 m) III century, dedicated to the imperial cult (Fig. 55).
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57. Rome. Temple of Venus and Roma. Plan, side elevation, longitudinal section |
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The outbreak of eclecticism under Hadrian was especially pronounced in architecture, which combined features of Greek and Eastern architecture with the Roman constructive basis. In this respect, it was erected according to the project of the emperor himself. temple of Venus and Roma (121-140) at the Roman Forum, criticized by Apollodorus for the disproportionality of some of its parts (Fig. 56-58). Outwardly, it is a Greek-type peripter with an elongated cella volume. But the core of the structure is made up of two identical, typically Roman temples, adjoining apses, in one of which was placed a statue of a seated Venus, in the other - Roma. The stone walls of the temple bore wooden rafters that covered more than 20-meter spans of the cell. Corinthian periptera columns (10x20) - white Luni marble. This most grandiose of the temples of the empire (107x55 m) was placed on a high platform (120x145 m), along the long sides of which there were colonnades of gray granite with white marble capitals. The colonnades in the center formed propylaea. Stairs adjoined the ends of the podium: the front one was wide facing the Sacred Road, and two narrow side ones were facing the Colosseum. The remains of the temple survived during the rebuilding of Maxentius, which strengthened its Roman features, when the stone walls were replaced by concrete ones with marble lining, and the wooden covering - with coffered vaults. The interior with the floor inlaid with colored marble, with sculptures in niches framed by edicules on brackets, with huge statues of Venus and Roma in the apses framed by porphyry columns amazed with grandeur and splendor. The temple to the goddesses - the patrons of Rome and the imperial power, compared with the temples of the ancient Roman forum - was striking in size and scale and clearly demonstrated the power achieved by the empire.
The idea of \u200b\u200bRome's military domination over the contemporary world was taken as the basis of the Adrianneum - temple of Hadrian in Rome, completed about 149 (fig. 59). The temple, using the periptera type, but in its Roman version and with a vaulted roof, was decorated inside with relief figures, personifying the provinces subject to Rome. In the arrangement of the reliefs, an oriental technique was used: they are placed on the pedestals of semi-columns dividing the walls, and the gaps of the podium between them are filled with military reinforcement.
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The peculiarity of the forgiving temple of Antoninus and Faustina at the Roman Forum (141 AD) there was a relief frieze, in which exquisitely outlined images of griffins, priestly vessels and garlands were repeated (Fig. 60).
By the III century. the construction of new temples in Rome almost ceased. At the beginning of the III century. was rebuilt again temple of Vesta and the atrium of the Vestals in the Roman Forum (Fig. 61). The round peripter with Corinthian columns on separate pedestals acquired a characteristic appearance for the buildings of the Severian time, with indistinct contours of the frieze reliefs and shallow cut ornamentation. The extended atrium included, in addition to the living rooms of the vestals, a number of utility rooms around the courtyard, decorated with fountains and statues.
Along with the temples to the Roman gods and emperors in the capital and a number of other cities of Italy already in the 1st century. BC. there were temples to the eastern gods.
The image of the religious ceremony of Isis is preserved on a fresco in Herculaneum (Fig. 62).
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| 64. Pompeii. Temple of Isis, 1st century AD Modern look, plan | |
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In Rome in 43 BC. was built on the Champ de Mars sanctuary of the Egyptian gods Isis and Serapislater rebuilt by Domitian. It was a semicircular fence surrounded by a portico with an apse in the center and exedra on the sides, apparently preceded by a rectangular courtyard (Fig. 63). In Pompeii, there was a temple of Isis - a type of prostyle on a high podium with two exedra flanking the cella, the second - a side entrance to it and a transverse division of the interior (Fig. 64). The temple stood in the center of a peristyle fence, to the back wall of which were adjoined two halls - for the initiation ceremony and for the common meals of believers - with paintings on Egyptian religious subjects. In front of the temple, to the left of the stairs, there was an altar and a reservoir of sacred water from the Nile, protected by an oriental temple with an entablature in the center, curved in the shape of an arch.
In the 1st century. BC. in Rome, near Porta Maggiore, the followers of one of the mystical cults built a three-nave underground basilica with an apse and a vestibule (Fig. 65). The incorrect position of the pillars is caused by the unusual way of building the basilica. Deep trenches and wells, filled with concrete, were dug along the contour of the walls and pillars. The earth was used as a casting mold also in the construction of arches between pillars and cylindrical vaults. The interior of the basilica, which was then freed from the ground, was illuminated by light from the vestibule, and was covered with delicate knocking decor and paintings.
A special type of religious buildings were mithraeums, which spread in the last centuries of the empire. Many mitreums have survived in Rome, Ostia, Capua and other cities in Italy and the provinces. Mithraeums were underground sanctuaries of an elongated rectangular shape with a niche in the depth, imitating a grotto and containing an image of Mithra killing a bull, with an altar in front of him and an elevation along the walls with beds for worshipers (Mithraeum in Serdika, present-day Sofia, Fig. 66). Sometimes, as in the mithreum of the thermal baths of Caracalla, in the center of the floor there was a pool where the blood of the sacrificial animals flowed down. The ceremonies took place in darkness and by the light of torches and ended with a meal. The main center of the Mithraists of Rome was the mithraeum of the imperial villa (II century), remarkable for knocking reliefs and paintings. It was excavated under the church of Santa Prisca on the Aventina.
The followers of Judaism built synagogues - basilical-type buildings, usually three-aisled, with benches along the walls and a facade oriented towards Jerusalem. One of them survived in Ostia (1st century AD, in the reconstruction of the 4th century).
In the 2nd half of the 3rd century. in the Roman religion, conditions were ripe for replacing polytheism with monotheism. The first attempt in this regard was made by the emperor Aurelian, who tried to introduce a single cult of the Sun into the empire. At this time, two temples of the Sun were built in the capital, both are circular peripters: one in the Circus Maximus, the other near the Flaminia road, which came down in a sketch by Palladio (Fig. 67). The latter was placed in the center of a large rectangular courtyard surrounded by a stone fence with exedra. The decorative details of the ensemble were apparently made by Syrian craftsmen.
In the last century of the empire in Italy, the construction of new temples almost ceased. This was caused both by the decline of the official religion, and by the general catastrophic state of the state.
Religious architecture in provinces, even deeply Romanized ones, was more closely associated with local traditions than other types of structures. This is explained by the fact that submission to Rome did not touch this area of \u200b\u200blife, for Roman polytheism fully admitted the existence of its own gods for each people. Of course, the introduction of the Romans and the founding of Roman cities was accompanied by the construction of the Capitol, and in the worship of the inhabitants of the conquered regions to the Roman deities, their loyalty to Rome was expressed. But often the Romans themselves, who fell into one or another conquered area, began to worship local deities in local temples as well. Antique polytheism often led to the identification of local deities with Roman ones, and the syncretism that arose in this way sometimes gave rise to a mixture of Roman and local features in the architecture of temples.
Thanks to all these circumstances, the general picture of the development of cult architecture in the provinces was quite variegated. Gaul is a typical example. A very strong Romanization of the province caused the construction of a large number of Roman temples (mainly pseudo-peripters), the most striking example of which was Mason Carré in Nemauza - a temple built in the 20-19 years. BC. and later dedicated to Gaius and Julius Caesars (Fig. 68). Another example of this type of temple is the Temple of Augustus and Livia (originally the Temple of Augustus and Roma) in Vienne, also dating from August time. In addition to them, there were many temples in Gaul, which in their forms had nothing in common with the Greco-Roman types. They found distribution throughout the empire, since they worshiped oriental deities, who received recognition both in Rome and in all provinces. Finally, there were local forms of temples. These include, first of all, the grandiose tower-like sanctuaries. A rotunda with an inner diameter of 21 m and a preserved height of 27 m, surrounded by a high portico and placed inside the peribole - such is the structure of an ordinary temple of this type (Vezunna, modern Perigueux, 2nd century AD). The dominant type was the round tower; less often there are also square temples (the so-called temple of Janus in Augustodun). Similar temples are known in Britain.
Another local type of temple was the so-called fan. This small temple was usually built in a forest and had a square cella with an entrance formed on the east side.
These temples are found in Gaul, Germany, and Britain. Finally, there were temples that mingled local and Roman features.
The situation was similar in other provinces. Thus, in North Africa there were many typical Roman temples. The temple in Tevesta (modern Tebesse, beginning of the 3rd century AD Fig. 69) is extremely close to the temple of Nemauz, but differs from it in a kind of decorative treatment of the attic. In the architecture of some temples, not Roman, but eastern - Syro-Phoenician features were clearly visible. Such is the temple of Saturn (Baal) in Dugga (Fig. 70), which consisted of a luxurious vestibule, a peristyle courtyard and three rooms located in a row on its northern side. The cult set off in the courtyard around an image of a deity, possibly in the form of a betil (conical stone). A peculiar combination of local and Roman features is demonstrated by the temple of Juno Celestis (Heavenly) in the same city (Fig. 70). The center of the sanctuary is a typical Roman peripter of the Corinthian order in the middle of a semicircular peribole.
The cult architecture of Roman Syria is peculiar; usually, anta, prostyle or periptery temples were built here, set in the back of the courtyard on a high podium with a staircase from only the main facade. But inside the place of the usual apse was taken by an adyton in the form of a high podium. Among the Syrian temples, the grandiose complexes in Baalbek (Heliopolis) and Palmyra (I-III centuries) stood out.
A grandiose ensemble of three temples - Big, Small and Round - occupied a significant territory in the western part Baalbek, near the intersection of two main highways (Fig. 71-73). The main one was Big temple (53.3X94.4 m, see Fig. 71), which, together with related structures, was erected according to the old Syrian tradition on an artificial platform (its height is 9 m). The height of the temple (about 40 m), the spatial scope of the ensemble and its orientation towards the city center determined its dominance in the urban landscape.
A monumental staircase led up to the wide facade of the propyls. The towers flanking the deep 12-column portico, the bending of the entablature in the form of an arch over the extended middle span of the colonnade, the emphasized frontal propylae - all this corresponded to the traditions of Syrian architecture. At the same time, the location along the same axis of all parts of the complex - propylae, hexagonal courtyard, rectangular peristyle and the Big Temple itself - corresponded to the principle of axial symmetry adopted in Roman architecture. The centric space of the hexagonal courtyard served as a kind of transition from the frontal space of the propylae to the space of the rectangular peristyle. The altar located along the axis of the peristyle and the elongated basins flanking it directed towards the Great Temple. However, the setting of the altar in the center of the temple complex, which was in keeping with the local tradition, and its grandiose size contradicted the axial composition of this ensemble. The large temple is badly destroyed: of the 54 columns of its outer porticoes, six have survived. However, the similarity of the layout of the Big and Small Temples makes it possible to reconstruct the interior of the Big Temple.
Its peculiarity is the assimilation of the interior of the temple to a peristyle courtyard, which gives rise to the impression of a kind of doubling of space. In the composition of the entire complex, the Big Temple was the final element, but at the same time, its internal space, as it were, repeated in reduced dimensions the ensemble as a whole. The monumental staircase of the temple was likened to the staircase of propylaea, the portico of the facade - the propylaea proper, the pronaos - to the space of a hexagonal courtyard, the naos resembled a peristyle, and in its depths on a high podium there was an aditon, designed as a miniature temple.
The unity of the various parts of the ensemble was emphasized by the same decorative technique - the division into two tiers of niches and aedicules filled with sculptures, almost all internal surfaces: the walls of the propylae, the walls of numerous exedra that looked out into the porticos of the courtyards, and the walls of the temple. The order is interpreted as a whole in Roman style, albeit with excessively high columns. It was combined with half-figures of bulls and lions in the relief decoration of the entablature. characteristic of oriental art.
Small temple (34X68.5 m, apparently dedicated to Bacchus) repeated the same compositional and decorative motifs on a smaller scale (Fig. 76, 77). An interesting feature of it was the introduction into the interior of a sculptural frieze depicting scenes of the Dionysian cult. The frieze, placed on the podium of the Adyton, seemed to lead to the statue of Bacchus, which stood in a niche in the depths of the Adyton.
South of the Big and Small Temples was the so-called Round temple (its diameter is 9 m). The four-column portico, facing the center of the ensemble, obscured the cella and gave the centric temple the frontal axial orientation, so beloved by Roman architects. A rare uniqueness of the appearance of the temple was revealed when walking around it. The deep opening of the pod and entablature created an alternation of strongly protruding and falling parts of the portico. Part of the porticoes receding in an arc-like manner brought the niches of the cella closer to the viewer, highlighting them with an order frame and focusing attention on the statues placed in them. Thus, the architectural forms of the temple imparted an intermittent rhythm to the movement of the perceiving viewer, different from the smooth movement around the usual rotunda.
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| 78. Palmyra (Syria). Temple of Bel, 1st-3rd centuries Reconstruction of the temple, plan, general plan, fragment of the courtyard colonnade | 79. Temple of Bel. Modern look |
The architecture is also marked by a combination of Roman and local features temple of Bela in Palmyra (1st-3rd centuries AD, fig. 78, 79). Like the ensemble of the Big Temple in Baalbek, the sacred site of the Bela Temple was located on an artificial platform (its size was 210 X 205 m) and was surrounded by a wall, broken from the outside by pilasters and niches. In the II century. porticoes were built along the inner perimeter of the wall. The higher portico along the western wall, unlike the others, had only one row of columns. In front of the temple, as in Baalbek, there was an altar for sacrifice and a pool for ablution. The access to the sacred site was opened by propylaea (the width of their facade is 35 m) with a monumental staircase and a three-span entrance. They were located on the western side of the site, along the axis of the entrance to the temple.
The frontal composition characteristic of Syrian architecture was evidently manifested in the architecture of the Bela temple.
Temple of Bela (55.3X30.3m) of the pseudodipter type, the capitals of the Corinthian columns of which were decorated with bronze acanthus leaves. It had an entrance not on the short, but on the long side, slightly shifted to the south of the transverse axis of the temple and decorated with a portal covered with a flat floral ornament. There were two adytons in the temple - at the northern and southern walls of the cella. In addition to the statue of Bel, in the niche of the southern wall in the cella of the temple, there were also statues of the gods of the sun and the moon (Yargibol and Aglibol), who together with Bel were the triad of the main deities of Syria. The images in the Roman-type temple of the seven planets, accompanied by signs of the zodiac on the ceiling of the northern niche, testify to the strength of local religious traditions with their cosmic representations. Unusual for a Roman temple is the presence of stairs in the corners of the cella, which led to the premises above the cult niches. Apparently, the stairs also had an exit to the flat roof, where square turrets towered above the Syrian crenellated attic, possibly serving for astronomical observations. Local motives play a significant role in the details of the ornament and especially in the reliefs of the temple.
In terms of the unusual architectural forms, the uniqueness of the combination of Roman and Eastern features and the monumentality, the ensembles of the temples in Baalbek and Palmyra were an outstanding phenomenon in the architecture of the Roman Empire.
In the south of Syria, in the areas of settlement of the Nabatean tribes, temples dating back to the Iranian fire temples (for example, Khirbet Tannur, Syria), built here since the Hellenistic time, were widespread. The cella, which was square in plan, was divided inside by four columns, forming a square in the plan, in the center of which an altar was placed. Northern Mesopotamia is characterized by the revival of the oldest local forms of the sanctuary. So, the temples of Dura-Europos repeat the scheme of the Babylonian temple with its vast courtyard, around which a group of rooms is arranged. A similar process is taking place in Egypt.
The general direction of the evolution of the cult architecture of the empire was the gradual elimination of traditional Italian types of temples. Strengthening of Eastern cults in Italy already in the II century. led to the strengthening of the importance of the interior of the temple and to the assimilation of a number of oriental decorative forms and compositional techniques. By the end of the empire, the construction of Roman temples ceased, and in the provinces, local types of sanctuaries began to prevail over temples with mixed Roman and local features. Since the III century. first latently, and then there is a clear search for a type of temple for the growing new religion - Christianity.
The principles of building temples in Ancient Rome before the adoption of Christianity were based on Etruscan traditions.
Types of temples of Ancient Rome
The architectural monuments of Ancient Rome were divided into two categories according to the purpose of use:
- Basilicas and temples for religious rites.
- Amphitheaters, aqueducts and other buildings for social, defensive and political purposes.
Let's dwell on the first group of buildings - temples of Rome.
The pagan religion was borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans along with the system of government. One of the oldest examples of buildings for performing ritual ceremonies is the Tuscan temple, described in the writings of Vitruvius.
The building plan corresponded to the canons of a Greek temple. The entrance to the halls was decorated with a double row of columns with terracotta elements typical of the Dorian style. According to this scheme, the temple of Jupiter of Kapitali was also built, the story of the construction of which is contained in the writings of Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
The rest of the temples of ancient Rome are characterized by modified features of the Greek building traditions. In the consular era, three orders were adopted:
- Ionian - Temple of Fortune Virilis.
- Dorian - Temple of Piety.
- Corinthian - all temples from the reign of Tiberius to Diocletian. The style was used to create the facades.
Temples of ancient Greece and Rome: differences
Roman temples of the later period were distinguished from Greek ones in several elements:
- the depth of the portico of the building among the Romans was much greater;
- the rule of enclosing a building with steps, characteristic of, was ignored in Rome;
- in the frontal part, a base with an apron was erected, which was rather an exception in Greek culture.
The uniformity of the Greek and Roman temples was given by the standard shape in the form of a circle. The temple of Vesta and the largest building in Rome, the Pantheon Temple, were built on this model. The cella in it is covered with a dome over 43 m high.
For a long time, the creation was considered to be the merit of Agrippa. After the discovery of Shedan, it was possible to establish that the architectural elements were created at different times. The circle-shaped cella was built during the Antonine era, from AD 100 to 125. Before the reign of Agrippa, the Pantheon consisted of 10 columns, after the inauguration of the emperor - their number was reduced to eight. Such a temple of Rome can be seen today.
The temples of Roma and Venus have an elongated cella with a vault, which was rarely seen in the architecture of the empire.
Basilica Pantheon, Rome Civil temples of ancient Rome: basilicas
Basilicas, representing buildings for religious purposes, were used in Rome for civil purposes.
The basilicas were intended for conducting judicial proceedings, covering political and social events, and holding public assemblies. Previously, state negotiations were conducted in the open space of the Roman forums.
The construction of the first basilica dates back to 180 BC. the time of Cato. The construction scheme was borrowed from ancient Greece.
Basilica Pantheon, Rome Roman basilicas were characterized by the following features:
- three naves - central and two on the side;
- the side aisles were erected in two floors;
- rafters made of wood were necessarily above the building;
- the width was equal to from 1/3 to 1/2 of the length of the building;
- the presence of transverse naves;
- the building was divided in width into five parts: two parts occupied the side aisles, three others - the middle nave;
- the columns were built in 2 tiers: one is 1/4 higher than the other;
- the lower floor was used for business meetings, the upper one was for walks;
- the tiers were separated by a stylobate, which was just below the upper tier.
Capital Hill, Rome The most famous basilicas in Rome:
- Ulpia, built at the end of Trajan's Forum after a sketch of the architecture of Apollodorus.
- Basilicas at Pergamum and Trier, the construction of which is attributed.
- Well-preserved Roman basilicas in: Musmiye, Sanamen, Constantine.
By the buildings of the republican period, one can speak of the deep religiosity of the Romans. There were more temples and basilicas in the cities than buildings for secular purposes.
Pantheon of rome served as a place of worship for the cults of Jupiter (), Mars (Greek Ares, patron saint of war) and Quirinus (a symbol of royal power in the tradition of ancient Greece). The religious basis of the trinity was laid in the system of distribution of functions in the state apparatus of Rome: religious, social and military.
Important historical events are associated with the Temple of Portuna, located next to the cattle market at the Forum of the Bulls. In 390 BC. the Gauls attacked Rome. The locals had to take refuge on the hill of the Capitol, the Roman army was defeated.
The Gauls then imposed a tribute in gold. After 800 years, the Goths will attempt to capture the capital of the ancient world, after which the Romans will begin an extensive campaign to capture neighboring states.
Late buildings of religious significance combine the religious traditions of the conquered territories of the Sabines, Latins and Etruscans. So the Romans tried to reflect the cosmopolitan nature of the new center of intersection of the interests of the ancient peoples.
Temples of Ancient Rome: presentation
Basilica of Pergamum, Rome As you know, there are more churches in Rome than in any city in the world - there are more than nine hundred of them! You will hardly be able to see all of them, but you can start getting to know them by visiting the most amazing ones.
1. Cathedral of St. Peter (San Pietro), piazza San Pietro
Yes, this basilica is in all guidebooks, every guide will bring you here, and to get inside you will have to stand in a long queue of tourists on the street. And yet, our list of the most amazing churches in Rome, we could not start with another temple. The largest Christian church in Rome, the main building of the Vatican, the center of attraction for millions of Catholics and millions of tourists and art and history lovers from all over the world. The cathedral was built over the centuries, and when you go inside, you will see why it took so long. The beauty and grandeur of the building is breathtaking! When you are tired, climb the dome to enjoy the view from the observation deck - the whole city is in full view! A pleasant bonus - from a height you can see the Vatican gardens adjacent to the walls of the basilica.
The most interesting excursions to the Vatican
2. Pantheon, Piazza della Rotonda
In the era of ancient Rome, it was a temple of pagan Roman deities, and in the 7th century it became a Christian basilica. The uniqueness of the structure of the structure is that it fits into an ideal sphere - and in fact, the diameter and height of the dome correspond to each other. Another interesting detail is the hole in the center of the dome. Exactly where the dome usually closes, ensuring the stability of the structure, here is a round hole ... According to legend, it was through it that pagan gods flew out of the temple. In this we can either believe or not. But each tourist can check the reliability of another legend personally. It says that, paradoxically, not a drop of rain falls through the hole in the dome into the temple during rain. If you find yourself near Rotonda Square on a rainy day, take a look at the Pantheon to see if there is a characteristic puddle on the floor in the center.
3, 4. Twin churches of Santa Maria di Montesano and Santa Maria dei Miracoli (Santa Maria di Montesano e Santa Maria dei Miracoli), Piazza del Popolo
There are many similar churches in the world. But twin churches, which also stand next to one another - you will see this only in Rome. Come to Piazza del Popolo, stand in the center of the square, facing the Via del Corso - and you can start playing the game "find 10 differences". Like real twins, these basilicas are not exactly the same, but to see how they are different will require time and attention from you. Inside each of the two churches, you will find a lot of interesting things. For example, in the main altar of Santa Maria dei Miracoli there is a miraculous icon of the Virgin Mary (the church is named after her, from Italian miracolo - miracle).
5. Basilica of Saint Eupraxia (Santa Prassede), via de Santa Prassede, 9 / a
A rare example of a Byzantine church in Rome, located near Santa Maria Maggiore - the Basilica of Saint Eupraxia - surprises with its magnificent mosaics against a golden background. In this church, which Russian tourists will find especially "native" - \u200b\u200bbecause of the more familiar decor for Orthodox churches, the chapel of St. Zeno deserves special attention. For its exceptional beauty, the latter is called the "Garden of Eden". It is here that one of the instruments of the Passion of Christ is kept - the pillar to which the Savior was tied during the scourging.
6. Santa Maria sopra Minerva, piazza della Minerva
In a city dominated by the Baroque, it is not easy to find even one example of Gothic architecture. It is all the more pleasant to come across the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva during Roman walks. The vaulted blue ceiling with golden stars is, alas, a restoration (19th century). But the side chapels carefully preserve the solid originals, and in such quantities that it will be enough for a small museum. Michelangelo's "Resurrected Christ", Perugino's frescoes and Bernini's sculptures are not a complete list of masterpieces that can be seen here. In the monastery attached to this church, the tribunal of the Holy Inquisition once sat, so that heretics, who were forced to publicly renounce their beliefs, were brought to Santa Maria sopra Minerva.
7. Church of the Merciful Father God (Dio Padre Misericordioso), Largo Terzo Millenio
If we talk about the amazing churches of Rome, then it is simply impossible not to mention this one. The creation of the famous architect Richard Mayer is not so easy to see - the temple is located quite far from the historical center of the city, in one of the peripheral districts called Tor Tre Teste. Those who find the time and energy to get to it will be rewarded - the reinforced concrete building bears so little resemblance to a church in the traditional sense that Rome is the last place where you expect to see a building of this kind. The temple was built in 1996-2003. made of special cement that contains titanium dioxide. Thanks to him, the walls are self-cleaning and always remain white, and the air inside the building is also cleaned of pollution.
8. Mausoleum of Saint Constance (Mausoleo di Santa Costanza), via Nomentana, 349
One of the oldest churches in the city, a rare example of a Christian structure, which is completely round on the plan. It is a treasure house that houses the earliest examples of Christian art and architecture in Rome. A round building with a diameter of 29 meters, built for the repose of the daughters of Constantine the Great, Helena and Constance, at the beginning of the 4th century. Subsequently, Constance was canonized and the mausoleum became a basilica named after her, and now it is one of the main monuments of the fusion of the style of ancient Christian basilicas with the Roman vaulted style. The sarcophagi that are in the church are just copies. The originals were taken out, Helen's sarcophagus to the Vatican Museums, and Constance's to St. Peter's Basilica.
9. Santa Maria in Cosmedin, piazza della Bocca della Verita "
Every day, crowds of tourists of all nationalities flock here and even stand in a long line to see ... not this church at all. Onlookers from all over the world are attracted by a strange artifact of the 4th century BC. - a marble disc installed on the side of the entrance to the basilica. The famous Mouth of Truth (Bocca della Verita) is nothing more than an ancient manhole cover adorned with an embossed mask with an open mouth. Leave those who want to be photographed in front of this "relic" with their hand in the mouth of a pagan deity, stand in line, and enter The church has stood here since the second century BC, when there was a Roman temple on this site. Then it was rebuilt to fit their needs. Most of the interior decorations date back to the XII century, and the crypt located underground was built in the VIII century. from pieces of mica, a fresco with a tree of life and most importantly - a mosaic of the 8th century hidden behind a souvenir shop A surprise for romantics - it is in this basilica that there is a niche with the head of the patron saint of all lovers, St. Valentine.
10. Capuchin Chapel (Cappella dei Cappuccini), via Vittorio Veneto, 27
For the faint of heart, it is better to bypass this attraction. Those whose curiosity outweighs fear can go to the Church of Santa Maria della Concezione, located near the Palazzo Barberini and the Triton fountain. It is under this building that the entrance to the Capuchin Chapel is located, all the decoration of which is made ... of human bones. Arches of skulls, skeletons dressed in brown cloaks with pointed hoods, picture frames, pilasters, lamps, patterns on the walls - all these are the bones of monks who belonged to the Capuchin order and who died between 1528 and 1870. Six rooms of the chapel, where about four thousand monks "rest" in such a strange way, will "tell" you about the frailty of all that exists.
Popular excursions "Christian Rome"
It is generally accepted that the primitive buildings of Rome came from the Etruscan people, maybe even built by them. It was logically a continuation of the line of Greek architecture. The buildings of the Roman Empire retained the basis of Etruscan architecture - a circular arch. The circular arch is a rounded stone covering that connected the abutments to each other. This helped to arrange the stones in a radius of the circle for even pressure on them. By applying new construction techniques, the Romans could bring creativity to new buildings. Theoretical new knowledge helped to build large temples, the ability to erect multi-storey buildings and structures. In terms of the introduction of cross vaults and box vaults, the Romans excelled over the Greeks and made more refined buildings.
In order for the arches to stand securely, the columns that were previously popular were no longer used. Roman architects began to erect huge walls and pilasters, and the columns became just a decorative ornament. This was applied almost everywhere, but there were buildings in which the use of columns was more expedient. At the same time, the styles of the columns practically did not change; the Romans settled on the standard walnut version.
In general, Roman architecture was directly dependent on the walnut directions of architecture. However, the Romans tried more to emphasize their strength and independence to intimidate and suppress foreign peoples. They spared no expense in decorating their buildings, each building was magnificently and richly decorated. At the same time, from the point of view of the architect, they tried to make each structure exemplary. Mostly buildings were built for practical needs, but temples also occupied an important place among the structures.
History of architecture of Ancient Rome
As an independent branch of world art, the architecture of Ancient Rome took shape for a very long time, approximately in the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. Despite the fact that many structures of those times have already fallen apart, they regularly continue to fascinate with their remains and individual elements. The Roman Empire was one of the great, if not the greatest, that laid the foundation for a new era. Public places of that time could accommodate tens of thousands of people (basilicas, amphitheaters, trade markets), while there was always something to strive for. Religion also did not recede into the background, the list of building structures in Rome included temples, altars, tombs.
Comparing with the whole world, even historians have come to the conclusion that it was difficult or simply impossible to find equal rivals to the architecture of Rome and Roman engineering. Aqueducts, bridges, roads, fortresses, canals as architectural objects are just a small part of the list of what they used on all fronts. They changed the principles of ancient Greek architecture, primarily the order system: they combined the order with an arched structure.
Great importance in the formation of Roman culture was given to the style of the Hellenes, who were supporters of architecture on a huge scale and the development of urban centers. But humanism and the ability to inherit the harmonious Greek style in Rome was omitted, giving preference to the exaltation of powerful emperors. They sharply emphasized the power of the army. Hence all the pathos, which was the basis of many decorations of buildings and structures.
The variety of structures and the general scope of buildings in Rome is much higher than in Greece. The construction of huge buildings was made possible by a change in the technical foundations of construction. This is how new brick-concrete structures appear. They made it possible to close large spans, speeding up the construction process. It was also important that with the use of such methods of construction, they increasingly abandoned professional craftsmen, and trusted slaves and workers without qualifications. This significantly reduced construction costs.
Stages of development of Roman architecture
I period
The stages of development of Roman architecture can be roughly divided into 4 periods. The first and shortest begins from the time of the founding of ancient Rome and ends in the II century. BC e. This period is not rich in architectural monuments, and those that appeared were the heritage of the Etruscans. Almost everything that was built during this period was publicly available. It brought collective benefits to the settlements. This category included the canals for cleansing the city of impurities, which with the help of them fell into the Tiber. The Mamertine prison and the first basilicas can also be attributed to buildings that were useful.
ІІ period
The second stage is usually called "Greek". From the middle of the II century, the serious influence of Greek architecture on Roman began. The influence was strong until the end of republican rule (31 BC). It is believed that at this time the first marble temples began to appear, replacing the usual rocks and travertine. They were very similar in design to the Greek ones, but the architects tried to make noticeable differences.
Roman temples during these years looked oblong with 4 corners. The foundation was usually high, with an attached ladder on the front. Climbing the stairs, you find yourself next to the columns. Going down a little to the depths, there is a door that leads to the main hall. The main lighting comes through this door, so it is often open.
Together with such temples of the ancient Greek type, the Romans erected, in honor of the Gods, round temples. These were mainly their own ideas using Greek elements. One of these can be considered the Temple of Portuna, surrounded by 20 columns, this historical object has survived to this day. The cone-shaped marble roof is a good example of Roman individual style.
The community of buildings included not only structures associated with religion, but also many others:
- Tabularia is a huge building dedicated to the preservation of archives;
- The Skavra wooden theater is one of the most interesting buildings of this period. Includes over three hundred marble columns and bronze statues, could accommodate 80,000 visitors;
- The first stone theater was built in honor of the goddess Venus.
The whole story about them disappeared with them. However, it should be noted that using modern technologies of three-dimensional modeling, it was proved that these structures were built very competently. For example, the "Stone Theater" was positioned in such a way that the stage looked to the north-east. Since under Augustus traditionally performances and celebrations were held in the morning, all the sun's rays fell on the stage, and not on the theater visitors.
ІІІ period
Most importantly the most effective period in the history of Roman architecture. The beginning is considered from the time of the arrival of Augustus to the republican throne and ends in 138 AD. e.
In the technology of the Romans, the active use of concrete begins. A new stage in the construction of basilicas, circuses and libraries began. There were trials, the identification of the best chariot riders. A new type of monumental art is gaining popularity - the triumphal arch. At the same time, the technique was constantly improved with the help of new erections, timed to the new victories of the future empire.
Roman art was not quite as graceful as Greek structures, but the technical prowess of construction remained at the highest level for centuries. The Colosseum (the largest amphitheater of antiquity) and the Pantheon temple (erection in the name of the Gods) are becoming famous all over the world.
The introduction of the features of Greek architecture gained massive popularity and continued to march into the western and northern regions of Europe. Most of the Greek architects became famous with the help of the Romans, who commissioned Greek copies that were better preserved than the originals. The Romans, unlike the Greeks, adhered to their concept of sculptural traditions. They made busts of their ancestors to show the prototypes of their kind. The Greeks used such sculptures as works of art in the home. This simplicity and vivid personality of Roman portraiture shows it from a new side for us.
During this period, all structures of architecture go through stages of development, improvement and increase the level of grandeur. Elements of luxury are widely used and the features of oriental art begin to slip for the first time.
IV period
After Hadrian's departure from power, Roman architectural art quickly began to decline. All those decorations that were previously used begin to seem redundant and inappropriate, and their use is less and less correct. This period continues until the full formation of Christianity and the departure of paganism far into the background. The period of decline is characterized by the fact that every ruler wants to go down in history with the help of magnificent structures.
This period also continues to be distinguished by oriental elements, which are more and more clearly seen in architectural art. They begin to prevail over the classics of the genre. Particularly eloquent evidence of this is the construction under the last rulers of the empire in such remote areas of possession as Syria and Arabia. This was noticeable by the change in the swelling of the roof surface, the abundance of unnecessary accessories. Mysterious, fantastic forms were often erected, which were considered symbols of the eastern direction of architecture.
The greatness of Rome in the Temples
One of the first buildings erected by Augustus, dedicated to the deified idol Julius Caesar. Built in 29 BC The temple was created in the modest style of the Ionic order. Separately, the place of Caesar's cremation was concentrated. The decorated room has reserved seats for speakers, replacing the tribunal that existed here, centered for many years in the western part.
Altar of Peace
A monumental structure of ancient Rome, which wrote down the victory of Augustus over the Spaniards and Gauls in history. It was built in 13 BC. e. In appearance it looked like a fence with right angles 6 m high, in the center of which there was a step with an altar. There were 2 passages along the perimeter of the fence, with the help of which it was possible to approach the altar. On the opposite walls were the processions of Augustus to sacrifice at the altar.
The memo had in its embodiment particles of all the cultures of the predecessors of Roman architecture. By the type of structure, one can judge the Italian style, and by the arrangement of the ornamentation along the bottom and top of the Etruscan principles. The exquisite workmanship of the relief of the altar speaks of a strong Greek influence.
Temple of Mars Ultor
One of the grandest temples in Rome. The width of the facade alone is about 35 m. The columns are erected up 18 m. The interior decoration was mainly of marble with wooden beams. Having a solemn appearance inside, the temple evoked a feeling of delight among the people present in it. The date of creation of this historical monument is considered to be 2 BC. e. Greek elements can be traced in almost all stages of architecture.
Pantheon
A special place in Rome is the Pantheon Temple. The second name is "Temple of All Gods". Many temples of ancient times were built by order of the emperors, including the Pantheon was no exception. The pantheon was dedicated primarily to the two gods Venus and Mars, they were considered the guardians of the Julian clan. The building consisted of three parts that were intertwined with each other. It was named after the architect who performed the work, but it is believed that the Pantheon was his pseudonym. The Pantheon was built in 118-128, years later it was restored several times. Today, only a small part of it has remained, which does not allow enjoying all the majesty of the temple of that period.
Sculpture of Ancient Rome
The monumental art of the ancient Romans was significantly inferior to the Greeks. The Romans never managed to create the greatest sculptor monuments and compete with the Greeks at these frontiers. But it was still possible to enrich the plastic with its elements.
The best results have been achieved in portraiture. The Roman people transferred their observation of every trait of man and his unique individuality. Ideal portraits were created, as well as portraits in which one could see the human negative and realism of the artistic form. With the help of sculptures, they first launched propaganda for the domestication of society. They erected monuments to famous personalities, made structures of triumph.
There are over 900 churches in Rome. It is, of course, impossible for a tourist to visit all of them, but there are those that are included in the obligatory "classical" program: St. Peter's Cathedral, the Pantheon (Church of St. Mary and the Martyrs), pilgrimage basilicas, some baroque churches. Even if you are not a religious person, the churches of Rome are definitely worthy of your attention, because many of them are masterpieces of architecture and at the same time museums where priceless treasures of world art are kept.
In this article we will tell you about those Roman churches that stand out against the general background - with their architectural style, history or the presence of an unusual museum.
1. Santa Maria sopra Minerva /Santa Maria sopra Minerva
The Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva is a church of the Dominican order, built between 1280-1453. after the image of the Florentine church of Santa Maria Novella. The basilica's rather nondescript façade hides a real gem - a magnificent Gothic-style interior with blue pointed arched vaults adorned with gold stars. it the only original example of medieval Gothic style in Rome (in Roman churches the Baroque style prevails).
The church got its unusual name "Holy Mary over Minerva" due to the fact that in its place there was once a temple of the Egyptian goddess Isis, mistaken in the Middle Ages for the temple of Minerva. The main treasures of the church - statue of Jesus Christ with a cross by Michelangelo (to the left of the altar) and the tomb with the relics of the patroness of Italy, Catherine of Siena. Also buried in the church is the outstanding early Renaissance painter Fra Angelico.
The Dominican monastery (in the building to the left of the basilica) was the headquarters of the Inquisition. It was within these walls of Giordano Bruno that the death sentence was read, and the famous trial of Galileo Galilei, during which he had to renounce his views on the heliocentric system of the world.
The Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva is a couple of minutes walk from the Pantheon in the area known as the Champ de Mars (Campo Marzio). The beacon of the location of the church is egyptian obeliskinstalled on the back of a baby elephant designed by the genius of the Baroque Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini.
The most convenient way to get to the church is by arriving at the bus or tram stop in Piazza Venezia. Nearest metro stations: Barberini (line A), Colosseo (line B). The address of the basilica is Piazza della Minerva, 42.
2. Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Prati / Chiesa del Sacro Cuore del Suffragio in Prati
If Santa Maria sopra Minerva is an example of the medieval Gothic style, then the Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Prati is already neo-Gothic, which is also very unusual for Rome. The church is small, but stands out on the Tiber embankment for its appearance, which was inspired by the architecture of Northern Italy, in particular the Duomo of Milan.
The uniqueness of the church is not only in its appearance. The sacristy houses a rather unusual museum, one of a kind - museum of Souls in Purgatory (museo delle Anime del Purgatorio). A fire broke out in the first building of the church, during which the priest Victor Jouet noticed that a sad human face appeared behind the altar. The priest decided that this is how the soul imprisoned in purgatory is trying to get in touch with someone living. According to the ideas of Catholics, if for the soul they earnestly pray on Earth, this will facilitate its entry into heaven.
Victor Jouet began to collect evidence and facts of this phenomenon - attempts by the dead to contact the living. This is how an unusual museum appeared, where such exhibits as, for example, a book with a trace, as if left by a burnt hand, or a pillowcase with the emerging face of a nun were collected. So the soul from Purgatory tried to send a message to its sisters asking them to pray for her more earnestly.
Where is it and how to get there
The Church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Prati is located on the Lungotevere Tiber, a 10-minute walk from the castle. Nearest metro stations: Lepanto (line A), Spagna (line A). Church address: Lungotevere Prati, 12.
3. Church of St. Ignatius / Chiesa di Sant'Ignazio di Loyola in Campo Marzio
The Church of Saint Ignatius is a typical example of Baroque architecture and is the most common architectural style in Rome. The church was built between 1626-1650. and dedicated to Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Jesuit order.
What is remarkable about the Church of St. Ignatius? In addition to the rich baroque interior, attention is drawn to the ceiling, decorated with a magnificent fresco "Triumph of St. Ignatius" by Andrea Pozzo. This is one of the largest ceiling murals in the world. To make it easier for visitors to examine its details, a large mirror is installed in front of the entrance, aimed at the ceiling.
Even more surprising is the "false dome" of the church - this is the plane in front of the altar, on which the painting is applied, creating the illusion of volume. The reason for the appearance of the pseudo-dome is prosaic: there were not enough funds for the construction of the present. But the brilliant Andrea Pozzo found a way out and created 3D graphics, which in the 17th century. made a great impression on contemporaries.
"False dome" of the Church of St. Ignatius 
Where is it and how to get there
The Church of St. Ignatius is a short walk from the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in the Campo Marzio area. The most convenient way to get there is by arriving at the bus or tram stop in Piazza Venezia. Nearest metro stations: Barberini (line A), Colosseo (line B). The address of the church is Via del Caravita, 8a.
4. Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane / Chiesa di San Carlino alle Quattro Fontane
The Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, also called San Carlino, was designed by Francesco Borromini, a Baroque genius whose rivalry with Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini was reminiscent of the confrontation between Mozart and Salieri. Interestingly, very close to the church of San Carlino is Sant'Andrea al-Quirinale - a church designed by Bernini, which the master himself considered his most perfect creation and often came here in old age for Mass.
The Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane was built by order of the Trinitarian Order, which was engaged in the ransom of captured Christian slaves. Financial support was provided by Cardinal Francesco Barberini, whose palace was across the street.
The church is very small and compact, but it is considered the standard of the Baroque style and its first full-fledged "swallow". In plan, the church has an unusual oval shape, and the wavy lines of the interior create a sense of constant flow and movement. Behind these wavy lines are complex mathematical calculations: at one time, the seemingly impossible architecture of the church made a splash.
It is also interesting where the church is located - at the crossroads, at the corners of which there are 4 fountains, symbolizing the Tiber and Arno rivers, the goddesses Diana and Juno.
Where is it and how to get there
The Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane is located near the Quirinal Palace and the Barberini Palace. Nearest metro stations: Barberini (line A), Repubblica (line A). The address of the church is Via del Quirinale, 23.
B asilica di Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri
The Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli y dei Martiri was rebuilt from the ruins of the Emperor Diocletian's baths, which were the largest in Rome. Therefore, its appearance is significantly different from the churches built from scratch. It is dedicated to the Virgin Mary, “the queen of angels,” as she is often called, and the patron of the Christian slaves-martyrs who died during the construction of the baths. The restructuring project was entrusted to Michelangelo himselfand this church is his last work before his death.
Behind the not very remarkable, almost ascetic facade of the basilica, it is very difficult to guess the majestic and magnificent interior, decorated with sculptures, frescoes and marble columns. But the most interesting thing is not on the walls and ceiling, but on the floor of the basilica.
Not everyone knows that it was the Roman popes who stood at the origins of the calendar that we use today, and were involved in financing astronomical projects. So on the floor of the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli y dei Martiri, by order of Pope Clement XI in 1702, a 44 m long meridian line (Linea Clementina) appeared, created by the philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Francesco Bianchini.
The line was needed to dispel doubts about the accuracy of the new Gregorian calendar, to which the Catholic world switched a century earlier. This is a sundial and a calendar by which it was possible to determine (with the help of a sunbeam falling on the floor from a hole in the wall) the days of the solstice and the equinox. Various zodiacal constellations made of marble are placed along the entire meridian line. On the right side of the line are summer and autumn constellations, on the left - spring and winter. Yellow stars can also be seen along the meridian, indicating the positions of some of the most important stars and their names.
Where is it and how to get there
The Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli y dei Martiri is located in the Place de la Republique. Nearest metro station: Repubblica (line A). The address of the church is Piazza della Repubblica, 00185.
6. Church of Saints Peter and Paul in the quarterEUR / Basilica dei Santi Pietro e Paolo
The Basilica of Saints Peter and Paul, dedicated to the patron apostles of the Eternal City, is one of the most significant examples of modern architecture in Rome. The history of this church is unusual because it was built as part of a complex of buildings in the new quarter. EUR (Esposizione Universale Roma) - an architectural project of the fascist regime, inspired by the legacy of imperial Rome, with its exaltation of the role of the state and rulers.
The Basilica of Saints Peter and Paul turned out to be very monumental, a kind of rethinking of the Cathedral of Saint Peter (Michelangelo's project was indeed adopted by the architects), just as the Palace of Italian Civilization ("square" Colosseum) became a rethinking of the Colosseum. It is located on a hill, towering over the Tiber, which is why, as the locals joke, some uninformed tourists on the way from Fiumicino to the center even mistake it for the original St. Peter's Basilica.
A stepped ramp leads to the basilica, which is crowned with giant statues of Saints Peter and Paul (just like at St. Peter's Basilica). The church's façade is clad in travertine, the most popular material in Rome, which was used, for example, in the construction of the Colosseum.
Where is it and how to get there
The Basilica of Saints Peter and Paul is located in the EUR quarter in the southwest of Rome. Not far from the church is the most famous example of architecture of the regime of Benito Mussolini - the "square" Colosseum. Nearest metro station: EUR Palasport (line B). The address of the church is Piazzale dei Santi Pietro e Paolo, 8.
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