Recently, a significant number of historians have begun to come to the same conclusion. The thesis that modern man originated in Africa turned out to be false.
These are the remains of the door temples of the most ancient civilization on the Land of Elel (the country of Arata). Many such monuments have survived on the territory of European Russia.
The modern type of man arose in the last era of glaciation of the planet at the very foot of the glacier, which 70-50 thousand years ago covered all of Europe. A thickness of ice up to 5 km high, like in Antarctica, did not leave any chance for survival for human beings who lived before. As a result, the previous type of man, the Neanderthal, is dying out on the planet. 28 thousand years ago, the last tribes of Neanderthals perish. Another type of person who was our ancestor, the Cro-Magnon, also almost shared the fate of his brother. 70 thousand years ago, no more than 2 thousand people remain on the planet. All of them took refuge in a narrow strip of deciduous forests that formed on the territory of modern Russia south of the modern city of Moscow at the watershed of the Oka, Volga and Don rivers. Here, the valley, squeezed from three sides by a glacier, became a place of salvation for mankind. Gradually, over 20-25 thousand years, the number is restored, but this is still not fully human. He is still a skilled person (he is already making tools and housing), but not reasonable. He becomes a man about 50 thousand years ago. He gets a speech.
Here the opinions of scientists differ. Some believe that a person could receive a speech code from a Neanderthal as a result of interspecies sexual intercourse. Others believe that the Cro-Magnon could not interbreed with the Neanderthal, since these two types of people were not related - they had a different gene code. Perhaps, other researchers believe that people received the speech code from the outside. This hypothesis can be confirmed by circles in cereal fields, mysteriously sometimes appearing both in Russia and in Canada. The signs on the margins surprisingly coincide with the swastika alphabet, which, according to scientists, was the basis of all the written systems of mankind. And the fact that a person mastered the alphabet from the beginning, and only then acquired speech, no longer raises doubts among serious scientists. The initial aura of human settlement can be considered the space from the Dnieper River to the Urals horizontally and from Moscow to the Black Sea vertically. This is the territory of modern Russia and part of Ukraine, Belarus.
About 30 thousand years ago, the migration of people from places of salvation to the outside world begins. The colonization of the planet occurs in several notable waves. Most of the migrants to the outside world perished, and the civilizations they created degraded. Only quite recently did people reach the final lands and now began to think about space exploration. But still, how was everything on Earth?
FIRST WAVE
The very first settlers began to appear outside the original halo of human settlement approximately 30-32 thousand years ago. At this time, the Neanderthal disappears, probably, this makes it possible to settle in territories previously controlled by an aggressive brother. The crowds of people reach Africa, China and even America. During the ice age, the ocean level is much lower than the current one - land corridors connect Eurasia with both America and Australia. However, most of the centers of life created by these people died out over time. Their small exotic tribes remained only in Australia and Africa.
The first settlers, whose descendants are still alive and form the basis of civilization, were the ar-keshe group (“pure people”), which especially worshiped the spirit of light, therefore they were called by the names of this spirit: Samar (hence Samara, Sumer), Seber (hence Siberia ), Deber (hence - Taurus, Dorians), Atryach (hence - Troy).
About 10 thousand years BC one part of the Deber left Russia for Western Europe, where it existed for a long time under the name of the Celts, and the other part - to the Middle East, where it formed the state of Samar (Sumer), which originally included the territories of Northern Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor , Balkan Peninsula, Western Iran, Transcaucasia.
This era is well characterized by the temple complex of the Umbilical Mountain in the southeast of Anatolia in Turkey. Under a hill about 15 meters high and about 300 meters in diameter - one of the countless hills in this desert region, in the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates - archaeologists have discovered walls and T-shaped pillars of limestone. Their surface was decorated with reliefs on which animals were depicted in a naturalistic way: leopard, fox, donkey, snake, duck, wild boar, bull, crane. These monuments date back to the middle of the 10th millennium BC.
In Göbekli Tepe, four round buildings were excavated, reaching 15-20 meters in diameter. Along the walls, as well as in the center of the premises, there were four dozen monolithic pillars weighing up to 20 tons. The central monoliths (their height reached five meters) resemble stone slabs of Stonehenge; only they are almost six thousand years older. Apparently, hundreds of people were involved in transporting them from a nearby quarry. An unfinished monolith 7 meters high and weighing 50 tons was found in the quarry.
Around 7500 BC, Göbekli Tepe suddenly becomes empty. Something strange happens: the grandiose sanctuary is covered with earth. This is how - in the "preserved" form - it will stand for almost ten thousand years before archaeologists come here.
The walls of the sanctuary are decorated with some kind of abstract icons. These geometric symbols and animal figurines seem to be more than a simple ornament. However, it seems that as a biological species, modern man can successfully develop only in the north: where cold and ice meet with heat. In the south, starting in the 7th millennium BC, life again dies out.
At the turn of 4-3 thousand years BC. a new wave of people from the north gives a new impetus to life. At this time, a highly developed civilization has long existed in Russia, which archaeologists designate the Tripolye culture (named after the village of Tripolye, where the first cities of the most ancient civilization were discovered). People in Russia live in two-story adobe houses, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, pottery are developing, ships are being built. At this time, the wheel is invented and the horse is domesticated. The times of chariot rulers are coming. The industrial revolution in the north creates undeniable technological advantages for the new settlers who are now meeting more backward local populations in the outside world. A new colonization of the planet begins. New settlers colonize peoples who arrived in the outside world earlier.
Samar split into:
1. Egyptian kingdom (Mamil);
2. Crash - Kingdom of Crete;
3. Suvar - kingdom in Mesopotamia, which retained its name - Sumer;
4. Midan (Western Iran);
5. Kafkash (Caucasus).
SECOND WAVE
In the 3-2 millennium BC. the second wave of immigrants from Arat moved to the south - Bilsag (hence - Pelasgi) or Bishatar (“five clans”).
The five-pointed star became the emblem of the second wave of immigrants. It means the winged leopard - the messenger of victory.
One part of the Bilsags settled in the Black Sea region. Another - in the Balkans (where it became known as the Pelasgians). The third is in the Caucasus (Kutiya, Khuta, Gutii, Utigi, Utii, Albans, Hittites) The fourth is in Central Asia (under the name of Sakas, Massagets and Kushans). The Central Asian wave then passed through Afghanistan and Pakistan to India and conquered it, Bilsag remained in the memory of the Indians under the name of five brothers - the Pandavs.
Caucasian Bilsag at the turn of the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC captured most of Asia Minor and founded the Hittite kingdom here, and around 2200 BC. attacked Sumer.
The Balkan Bilsags founded Mycenae, Bilsaga (later Pliska) and other cities.
The Philistines built five (5) port cities on the coast: Aza (Gaza), Ascalon (Ashkelon), Asdod (Ashdod), Jaffa (Yafo), Akko. Five cities - five clans, Bilsag!
Note: of the 12 tribes of Israel, 7 tribes remained in Russia and eventually formed Sarmatia (the union of seven tribes), and five tribes left for the outside world. By the way, on the Orthodox cross there are seven small crosses at the ends, as a symbol of Sarmatia. And the five-pointed stars on the Kremlin towers are the symbol of the Bilsag, the five tribes that have gone into the outside world.
THIRD WAVE
In the 2-1 millennium BC. to the south from the central provinces of the Aryan world, the third great wave of immigrants began to move, led by the tribes of the exagah (“rivermen” or “watermen”). They are transferred to ships that are being built on the Voryazhskaya section near the modern city of Voronezh. They descend along the Don River to the south, their ships even reach Egypt and the upper Nile. The "dark ages" are coming because of the constant raids of the people of the sea - sea pirates - the Hellenes. They form the Bosporus freemen in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and gradually settle along the Black and Mediterranean Seas in the city-states. This is how the ancient world appears.
In the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. a catastrophic volcanic eruption on the island of Fera (near Crete) killed most of the population of this island. The city of Troy, which had previously been part of the Kingdom of Crete, declared itself an independent kingdom. But the Achaeans or Argives - i.e. “Uralians” conquered Mycenae, Crete and Cyprus and founded their own Mycenaean or Argos kingdom (its coat of arms is a dragon). The Trojan inhabitants tried to stop the expansion of the Mycetes, but around 1200 BC. the latter, after a long siege, took and destroyed Troy. Around the same time, the Mycenaeans seized the territory of the Hittite kingdom (where they founded their principalities) and attacked Egypt. Some of the inhabitants left Troy for the Apennine Peninsula, where they founded a new kingdom named after their ancestral homeland - Idel (hence - Italy). The neighbors called them Etruscans.
In the so-called axial era of the 7th century. BC. another major migration of the population began, caused by the war between two tribes - the Sakas and the Massagets (both were descendants of the Bilsag, the Second Wave). It seems that the war began somewhere in the territory of today's Kazakhstan. Not all Saks were at enmity with the Massagets, but only a part of the Saks under the leadership of the Nukrat clan (or eschtyak). They were Ugrians from the north, whose intentions were to advance to the more convenient southern lands. First they settled among the Saks and joined their union, and then decided to invade the territory of the Massagetae, where they were defeated.
The Scythian troops directed by King Berendey, pursuing them, broke into the Middle East and subjugated the lands from the Caucasus to Egypt. “For the fact that the Aryaks (ancestors of the Armenians) helped Tsar Berendey to conquer the Caucasus, he allowed them to settle in the part of Armand (Transcaucasia). Soon, however, the main troops of Arata were withdrawn to the metropolis (where another civil strife began), and the Scythian militias remaining in the Middle East were attacked by the former allies - the Medes and retreated.
Since then, the Aryans of the Kypchak-Ishtyak clan have settled and began to dominate in the Northern Black Sea region: Nukrats (Nevras), Ishtyaks (Yazygs), etc. And immigrants from Russia to distant worlds still carried the achievements and peculiarities of Idel culture.
Russian scientist Vladimir VERNADSKY (1863-1945) in the twentieth century expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe influence of the living organic world on the history of the elements that make up the earth's crust, came to the conclusion about the eternity of living matter as a general manifestation of the cosmos, like energy and matter. In December 1911, at the Mendeleev Congress, Vernadsky made a report on the gas exchange of the earth's crust, in which he substantiated the idea of \u200b\u200bthe planet's "organization", of the general planetary mechanism. In 1936, Vernadsky accepted E. Leroy's idea of \u200b\u200bthe noosphere as a continuation, a new state of the biosphere, a new era that should begin in the history of the Earth and the entire cosmos.
If we start from the ideas of Vladimir Vernadsky, then the Earth is a living organism, and humanity is its blood. Then, undoubtedly, the heart of this living organism is in Russia. It is here that people come for salvation, and from here, transformed, they again go on a journey around the planet. I think that Russia will continue to play this role in the future, when restless people begin to inhabit space.
There are four different types of people on Earth
There are four different types of humans on Earth.
http://ari.ru/news/c0bab5086 a couple of quotes:
"There are several types of people on Earth, the relationship between which is subject to the laws of biology. That is, you cannot interbreed randomly, otherwise negative consequences will come.
- It is known. First, there is Haldane's rule. It states: the greater the genetic distance between people, the less likely it is to get fertile and healthy offspring from them. The second rule is hybrids cleaning. Precisely because in nature these two rules work non-stop, there are no mestizo individuals on Earth. For a person, this means the following: all interracial marriages will lead to the extinction of the mestizo genus. "" There are four types of man on Earth - African, Mediterranean, Russian-Plain, Asian. The time distance between any pair of species ranges from 350 thousand years to 1 million years. These facts are extremely important not only for the knowledge of the history of human development, but also for medical purposes, since the crossing of different types of living beings leads to pathologies or to degeneration. "
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Academician Derevyanko:
"There was
extinct species
primitive man,
unknown to science "
An analysis of the genomes of a previously unknown species of fossil man, the so-called "Denisovan", whose remains were discovered by Novosibirsk archaeologists in Altai, indicates that there was another extinct species of primitive man on Earth, completely unknown to science. Anatoly Derevyanko, director of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, announced this today at a press conference in Novosibirsk.
"Denisovans have up to 17 percent of genomes from a Neanderthal, 4 percent from a genome of an unknown species and subspecies," Derevyanko said.
This is so far the only evidence that, in addition to Neanderthals, Australopithecines, an extinct population of ancient people lived on Earth, the existence of which scientists did not even suspect.
Derevianko believes that sensational anthropological finds confirming the existence of an unknown species of ancestors of modern people are likely to be found in Altai. And he does not exclude that already in this archaeological season.
The discoveries of Novosibirsk archaeologists indisputably proved that on the territory of modern Altai, about 50 thousand years ago, two groups of fossil hominids coexisted - Neanderthals and Denisovans, and interspecific crossing took place among them.
Scientists managed to decipher the complete genome of the "Denisovan", preserved only in small tissue samples - the phalangeal bone of the finger and two teeth, which were previously found in the Denisova cave in Altai. According to scientists, "Denisovets" is related to Neanderthals.
Archaeologists continue to work in the Denisova Cave, where, according to Derevianko, "there are up to 14 cultural horizons. This makes it possible to trace the dynamics of the development of ancient man."
In the scientific world, of all the achievements of the last period, the discovery of the remains of a previously unknown species of fossil man ("Denisovan") in Altai is ranked second in importance after the discovery of the Higgs boson.
Academician Derevyanko was awarded the State Prize of the Russian Federation in 2012 for outstanding discoveries and works in the field of studying the ancient history of mankind in Eurasia and the formation of a modern human anatomical type.
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Andrey Tyunyaev:
academician Derevyanko proved
polycentric theory
human origin
June 10, 2013 will go down in history as the day that changed the idea of \u200b\u200ba person. If before that "officially" it was believed that mankind is one species, whose ancestors left Africa about 60 thousand years ago. Then after June 10, humanity turned from a species into a genus. And Africa "drowned", as Atlantis, fictional by Plato, drowned in its time. Regarding this significant event, we asked several questions to the President of the Academy of Fundamental Sciences, Andrei Alexandrovich Tyunyaev.
Andrey Alexandrovich, what is the meaning of the event?
Today the winners of the annual state prize of Russia in the field of science and technology have been named. Anatoly Derevyanko, director of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, became a laureate of one of the awards. He received an award for discoveries in the study of the ancient history of mankind in Eurasia. It should be noted that the aide to the President of Russia Andrei Fursenko explained the reasons for presenting the award to Anatoly Derevyanko: the results achieved by the Russian scientist who discovered the remains of a previously unknown species of fossil man ("Denisovets") in Altai are of a breakthrough nature and "really change the idea of \u200b\u200bscience about how evolution took place , human advancement. "
It's too short. Can you describe the picture of the discovery in more detail?
First of all, I sincerely congratulate Academician Anatoly Derevyanko on his, of course, a well-deserved award. This is indeed an outstanding, very important and extremely timely discovery. What is the change of perception? Here's what. In January 2013, we talked about this very topic. The newspaper "President" published the material "RAS supported Andrey Tyunyaev's polycentric theory of the origin of man." It was about this discovery and about this situation. Let me briefly recall the essence of the polycentric theory. German anthropologist Franz Weidenreich (1873 - 1948) hypothesized that different people descended from different ancient ancestors. The French anthropologist Paul Pierre Broca (1824 - 1880) developed polycentrism, for example, in works such as the famous article "Humanity - One Species or Several?" All anthropologists and anatomists have always given the same answer to this question: humanity consists of several species.
What is the difference between human species?
There are many differences. To begin with, at least those to which we are accustomed - this is skin color, geometric dimensions, eye shape, etc.
But they don't mean anything ...
It is this delusion, or rather, deception, imposed by a certain group of "scientists" pursuing their own political goals. We will not name them, I think that many will guess. It was these "scientists" who unleashed the persecution of real researchers around the world and launched a large-scale Inquisition. We will not name the names of the victims: let them now dream in nightmares of those sissies who kicked them. I have witnessed such attacks at some conferences. For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that serious scientists have never allowed themselves and do not allow incorrect attacks on their colleagues. The chief inquisitors are usually candidates of science.
How will Anatoly Derevianko's discovery affect the situation?
I think seriously or even dramatically. After all, this is what happened. If until June 10 of this year it was officially believed that all people are no different, and, in this regard, it is possible to enter into promiscuous sexual relations with representatives of different races, then after June 10 the picture turned a different side - several types of people live on Earth, relations between which are subject to the laws of biology. That is, you can not interbreed randomly - otherwise negative consequences will come.
What is the negativity of such consequences?
This is known. First, there is Haldane's rule. It establishes: the greater the genetic distance between people, the less likely it is to get fertile and healthy offspring from them. The second rule is hybrids cleaning. Precisely because in nature these two rules work non-stop, there are no mestizo individuals on Earth. For a person, this means the following: all interracial marriages will lead to the extinction of the mestizo family. With bitterness we have to state that today's mestizos will fall victim to the propaganda of the Middle Eastern "scientists" who pursued their, no doubt, fascist goals and drove this lawless idea into the heads of some part of humanity. Rabbi Finkelstein highlighted these goals in an interview with the American radio station. Those interested can listen to that broadcast on the Internet or read its printout. But in fact, it is not the differences of people and not their similarities that are important - these are all the classes of the classifiers. The truth is important: if humanity is a genus, then no religious and political propaganda should try to change this.
Why is Anatoly Derevyanko's discovery important, well, would parity be maintained? ..
His discovery proved that there was and exists at least one more kind of man. Anatoly Derevyanko called him "Denisovs" - after the name of the cave in which the remains of an ancient man were discovered. The academician claims that today's Asians of the Malay race became the descendants of that Denisovite. It is important. Important for science. After all, as I said, we are looking for the truth. And we are not engaged in fitting the version of the surrounding world to some religious dogma.
Is it possible to clarify what are the differences in time in human species that can now be distinguished?
Yes. Today, there are four large human species. I say "large" because so far no one has conducted research for a clear identification of these very species. So, the four species are: African species; the Mediterranean species are the descendants of the Neanderthal man; the Russian-flattened species is the one that until now has been called “a modern human species”; and, finally, the Asian species - the descendants of the Denisovan man. Moreover, the African species is not monolithic, but consists of at least three or four species. There are more differences between them than between all the others combined.
The Denisovian species of man separated from, conditionally, the common trunk about 500 thousand years ago. This means that there is a genetic distance between any person living in the center of Russia and a person living in Southeast Asia, which was formed in 1 million years. Can you imagine how different the genetics of these people are? The Neanderthal, or Mediterranean species, was the second to separate from the "common" trunk. This, according to various sources, took place from 400 to 200 thousand years ago. That is, between us and some Mediterranean people, the genetic distance can reach 800 thousand years. And the last one of the African species separated from the "common" trunk. This took place about 170 thousand years ago. This species went to Africa, where there were also human species with which we have a theoretical relationship point at a depth of 300 - 500 thousand years.
Yes, the picture is really different from what we had to learn in school ...
So, science does not stand still. By the way, there is another stream of data that confirms the calculations I have sounded. It's about nuclear DNA. To date, the DNA of a very large number of people around the world has been studied. This is several million, and possibly already several tens of millions. An analysis of these data also shows that the division into these species took place in ancient times. True, according to Y-DNA data, this is 60 - 300 thousand years for different species. But the fact of the difference in species remains.
How was your own research in this context perceived by the scientific community?
Fine. As I said above, the real "masters", of course, are well versed in this issue. For them, the new data is another confirmation of the obvious. For the first time I published my conclusions on anthropogenesis in Chapter III of the monograph "The history of the emergence of world civilization (systems analysis)". It was 2007. Here is a quote: “200 thousand years ago, on the Russian Plain, in Europe, the Northern Mediterranean, and the North Caucasus, paleoanthropes passed into their final stage -“ Neanderthals ”- and formed the Mousterian archaeological cultures. And in Africa and Asia, there were also paleoanthropes with Acheulean cultures. And fifth: 50 thousand years ago, on the territory of the Russian Plain, on the basis of a local species of paleoanthropus, a man of a new type was formed - neoanthropus, who formed his own Upper Paleolithic archaeological cultures. Mousterian "Neanderthals" existed in the Mediterranean and the Caucasus at that time. In Africa and Asia - the Acheulean paleoanthropes and in some places the Chellean archanthropus. " This is said in other words, but the essence is still the same: several regions - several types of people.
After that, already in 2008, I published an article "The Origin of the Russian People According to Archeology and Anthropology" ("Organizmica" (web), No. 9 (69), September 9, 2008). In it, all species differentiation was set out in detail, and on its basis the path of development of a modern human species - or that species of a person that lives on the Russian Plain was shown. And in 2010, we, in collaboration with Harvard professor Anatoly Alekseevich Klyosov at the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Belarus, made a report "The hypothesis of the emergence of haplogroup I on the Russian Plain 52-47 thousand years ago" (Collection of materials of the international scientific and practical conference "Comprehensive and ancient human populations ". - Minsk: Institute of History of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus. - June 23-25, 2010. - P. 384 - 396).
In 2012, at the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Belarus, we made another sensational report - "The collapse of African theory". It showed that for many years the prevailing theory of the origin of man from Africa is untenable. Such conclusions were made based on studies of the Y chromosome. Our report was delivered plenary, which indicates its high scientific status. To date, about 20 scientific works have been published around the world about the insignificance of the "African theory". We can say that this fact will soon become generally accepted.
In other words, is the work of Academician Anatoly Derevyanko, for which he was awarded such a high award, only part of the puzzle?
Yes, partly. But a very important part. Almost no one is involved in Asia. And no one is as serious as Academician Derevianko. I will not talk about Asian scientists, because there is a special attitude to the results of their research. And Russian anthropologists and archaeologists, as always, are on top. Thus, the mosaic today is as follows. I will repeat it again. There are four types of man on Earth - African, Mediterranean, Russian-Plain, Asian. The time distance between any pair of species ranges from 350 thousand years to 1 million years. These facts are extremely important not only for the knowledge of the history of human development, but also for medical purposes, since the crossing of different types of living beings leads to pathologies or to degeneration. It remains only to congratulate Academician Anatoly Derevyanko once again on a well-deserved award. I wish him health and further success.
The most obvious difference that paleoanthropologists point out between a modern human, who lived 50,000 years ago, and a Neanderthal and Homo erectus, relates to the material side of culture. We are talking about the things that these people made and which we find today. Homo erectus in Asia, it seems, has not advanced in technology beyond the manual chopper. The Neanderthal knew how to make throwing spears and flint knives, but then the matter also stalled.
But a man of the modern type invented more and more new tools, difficult to manufacture, and invented with amazing speed. He made spears tipped with staghorn - a light but strong material that, in order to sharpen, took several hours to soak, and then polished for a very long time. He invented a weapon that helps to increase the lever arm when throwing and throw javelins much further and with greater force. Compared to the Neanderthals who chased their prey with clubs, humans were able to obtain more meat while putting themselves at less risk.
Not all human inventions were for practical purposes such as hunting. For example, in caves in Turkey, scientists have found necklaces made from snail shells and bird claws at least 43,000 years old. Modern man from the very beginning he loved to wear jewelry. Perhaps they served as a kind of tribal sign or testified to the owner's high position in the group.
“People put thousands of hours of labor into making jewelry,” says Randall White of New York University. - This occupation was a priority in their life, and the jewelry itself characterized the status and role of their owner. If a person wears something on his body, it immediately informs others about who he is in society. "
Artifacts left by ancient people tell of a profound shift in people's views of themselves and the world around them. And it may have been this shift that gave them a competitive edge. “About 50,000 years ago something happened,” Klein explains, “and it happened in Africa. People who previously only looked modern have become modern in behavior. They invented new forms of tools, new ways of hunting and gathering, which allowed them to maintain much higher numbers. "
Researchers can only guess what exactly caused the behavioral shift. Some believe that the creative revolution was just a matter of culture. Anatomically, modern man in Africa has undergone some changes - perhaps there was a population explosion - and as a result, society was forced to cross some threshold. New conditions arose; man invented modern tools and art. “In terms of the nervous system, Cro-Magnon man was quite capable of going to the moon, but did not do it because the social context was inappropriate,” White says. "The man was not faced with tasks that could push him to inventions of this kind."
However, Richard Klein seriously doubts such explanations. If, for hundreds of thousands of years, people were potentially able to paint the walls of the Chauvet cave or make wonderful spears, then why didn't they? Where does this delay come from? If the revolution was purely cultural, then why did the Neanderthals, who for thousands of years lived side by side with people of the modern type, did not adopt new tools and art from them, why did they not make it all their own, as happens today between modern cultures?
Klein also points out that modern humans probably did not grow when their behavior suddenly changed. Geneticists, by examining the variability of the DNA of living people, can estimate the size of the original population, and none of the estimates give too many. It is currently believed that all people on the planet descend from several thousand ancient inhabitants of Africa. “Apparently, a completely modern type of man appeared at a time when the African population was relatively small,” says Klein.
The small group may not be well suited for major cultural shifts, but biologists have long known that it could be the perfect place for evolutionary change. In such a group, mutations can spread rapidly, rapidly changing its members. With this in mind, Klein suggested that the dawn of modern humanity was due to biological factors. 50,000 years ago in Africa, new mutations occurred in the genes responsible for the structure of the human brain, thanks to which humans acquired the ability and taste for art and technical innovation - properties that no other member of the human race had previously possessed. “Personally, I think,” says Klein, “the changes have taken place in the brain.”
It is possible that changes in the structure of the brain could allow a person to get rid of severe mental limitations that held back the development of his ancestors. Man stopped looking at animals only as food and realized that their bones and horns can be used as wonderful tools. Instead of hunting any animal with the same weapon, he began to invent different types of weapons that would make it easier to hunt different animals, be it fish, mountain goat or red deer. The new style of thinking - what the University of Reading archaeologist Stephen Miten calls "fluid intelligence" - allowed people to think abstractly about nature and about themselves and to create symbolic images of objects and phenomena in the form of drawings and sculptures.
Language, at least in its advanced form, could also be part of recent changes. “Perhaps 50,000 years ago, the ability to speak quickly and clearly appeared so that other people could understand and understand speech; and then it began to be used to convey information about new ways to do something, something that a person could not do with such ease before, ”says Klein.
New technologies were too complex to convey experience simply by example. On the territory of Russia, for example, people boiled mammoth tusks and buried them with the dead. The tongue-tied Neanderthals simply could not pass such a tradition from generation to generation. A modern-day man could tell his fellow tribesmen about what he had invented, and new ideas spread in the population very quickly. People began to use stone, ivory and other materials for the manufacture of tools, which had to be transported hundreds of kilometers: speech made it possible for the groups to communicate with each other, to agree on things for exchange. It was the mastery of speech and language that allowed a person to attach a certain meaning to jewelry and works of art, no matter social or sacred.
Researchers do not yet know exactly how events unfolded in Europe and Asia, when a modern man, armed with a new culture and, quite possibly, a new brain, left Africa and met a Neanderthal and Homo erectus. Has the war of annihilation begun? Or did the natives of Africa bring devastating diseases with them to Europe and Asia, just as the Spanish brought smallpox to the Aztecs? Or maybe, as many scientists suspect, the new capabilities of the brain simply gave modern humans a competitive edge. “They replaced the Neanderthals in Europe mainly because their patterns of behavior were much more complex. They were also much more effective as hunter-gatherers, ”said Klein.
People of the modern type could exchange the necessary supplies; they could resolve disputes with words, not death knots. They invented weapons and tools that made it possible to obtain more food and clothing; as a result, they survived during droughts or severe frosts when other people died. Material finds indicate that modern humans have settled more densely than Neanderthals. It is possible that the Neanderthals had to retreat to mountain refuge, where they were eventually killed by natural disasters and related mating.
Of course, not all modern people rushed to Europe. Those who turned into Asia were initially able to move along the sea coasts. Finds on the shores of the Red Sea show that Africans settled on the coast and ate seafood as early as 120,000 years ago. Perhaps their descendants, settling along the shores of the Arabian Peninsula and Hindustan towards Indonesia, tried to preserve their habitual way of life associated with the sea. When restless aliens appeared on the territory Homo erectus, local hominids may have had to retreat inland from the coast and find refuge in the jungle. Gradually, they completely isolated and quietly disappeared from the face of the earth about 30,000 years ago. Part of modern people headed upstream of rivers in the heart of Asia, while another part reached by boat to New Guinea and Australia, where hominids had not gone before. 12,000 years ago, people moved from Asia to the New World and quickly populated lands all the way to the southern reaches of Chile. In the blink of an eye - by evolutionary standards, of course - all continents, except Antarctica, became for Homo sapiens home. A man who was once only a subspecies of chimpanzees, expelled from the forests, now dominated the world.
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Note that today many scientists from this field believe that modern man has contradictory features: on the one hand, he is the creator of the great achievements of our time, and on the other, an ordinary consumer who does not think about the need for self-development.
Of course, in every culture there are outstanding personalities who contribute to the development of progress, and also inactive people, but if you imagine a modern person as a collective image, then the picture certainly looks contradictory.
Modern man: the cult of success and morality
Today, the common thing for representatives of different cultures is the desire to achieve success. It is interesting that earlier a person considered a manifestation of heroism (a period of 50-200 years ago), the creation of strong family ties and the birth of healthy offspring, a success. social realization without regard to material wealth.
Now, the measure of success (in most cases) is money, and the pursuit of them is sometimes aimed at destroying the environment, and sometimes self-destruction.
We can say that the spiritual in the understanding of a modern man merges into a concept with one meaning, material, while earlier people endowed them with great differences.
Nevertheless, in society, they still attach great importance to such concepts as mercy, kindness, sympathy: this is indicated by various organizations created to provide material support to the poor.
Therefore, we can say that modern man has a polarity: one can find examples of both altruistic behavior and selfish behavior.
and technology
Another distinguishing feature of our time is the accelerated rate of introduction of new technologies and devices. And this is what distinguishes the life of a modern young man, it is inextricably linked with technology.
Electronic devices have become of great importance for many modern people, they become not only a part of everyday life, but even form. One has only to imagine a day without a computer and the Internet. For some, work cannot be organized without them, while others simply will not find it, and still turn to other technical devices: telephone, radio, TV. 200 years ago people existed without these devices, and now life without them would be very complicated.
Therefore, we can say that the life of modern people is very closely connected with technology, its quality largely depends on technical capabilities.
Modern man and the problem of freedom
Previously, the issue of freedom was not as acute as it is now. A person has learned to defend his rights, value expanded opportunities and respect other people's freedom. This is a positive feature of our time: almost everyone is given the maximum possible freedom of development, which allows them to show their talents. This contributes to the development of progress and testifies to the humanity of the worldview. Equal rights are important and beneficial to society. And the fact that they have now been implemented is a positive feature of our time.
What should be a modern person
Historian and sociologist Boris Porshnev deduced such a concept as "neoanthrope", by which he understood the type of person of the future, but he pointed out that its representatives can be found at the present time. This person has the following features:
- free, not subject to someone else's suggestion (developed self-awareness);
- abstract thinking, developed will and the ability to suggest are used only for creative purposes;
- striving for the life balance of society (absence of revolutions);
- kindness.
According to the scientist, such people can lead society to prosperity and reduce the number of conflicts that have a devastating effect on all areas of life.
About 40 thousand years ago, a modern man appeared, called by scientists Homo sapiens - Homo sapiens.
Through the isthmuses that existed at that time, people penetrated into Australia and America. The resettlement of people in different geographical conditions led to the beginning of the process of race formation. The result was the division of humanity into Caucasians, Mongoloids and Negroids.
Appearance was not the only thing that distinguished Homo sapiens from its predecessors. The most important event for the formation of man as a species was the awareness of new relationships within collectives. We now call these relationships social or public.
First of all, this was expressed in the confirmation of kinship relations between people. It was a real revolution in human life. It was the recognition of kinship that stabilized human collectives, led to the regulation of relations between people, made tribal communities permanent and close-knit associations, which was not observed either in the animal world or in the primitive herd. A tribal community emerged, all of whose members were descended from a common ancestor.
The most important step towards the development of social relations was the prohibition on marriage or sexual relations between relatives. Wives were now allowed to take in neighboring friendly births. This, in turn, led to the establishment of stable relationships between individual genera. Several friendly clans began to unite into tribes.
There was a ban on the murder of a relative, and if he died at the hands of a foreigner, the clan avenged his death. "Blood feud" largely contributed to the containment of bloody clashes and wars between clans, since it was unsafe to kill a person, because he was under the protection of his kind. Therefore, the most terrible punishment was expulsion from the clan.
The clan associations were also important because only the whole clan had the opportunity to feed themselves. Social differentiation in the tribal community of the hunting and gathering period did not yet exist. All property of the family, including food, was shared. Relatives helped each other in all matters, jointly procured food. Everyone made a contribution to the life of the community and received from it as much as possible.
The emergence of the main means of communication - language - played a huge role in the development of social relations between people.
It should be noted in the formation of Homo sapiens as a social species and the importance of religion. The question of the reasons for its appearance is very difficult. However, it is clear that this was the first attempt by people to explain the world around them, which testifies to the emergence of abstract thinking.
The religious views of the people of that time were manifested in the emergence of burial rituals for the dead.
It is known about the emergence of the cult of fertility at this time. Fertility was personified by the goddesses with disproportionately thick bodies. Archaeologists call their figurines "Paleolithic Venus".
The appearance of abstract thinking in the Late Paleolithic is also evidenced by Paleolithic art. The preserved "cave galleries" in the caves of France, Spain and in the Kapova cave in Russia make a grandiose impression.
Social relations and abstract thinking became the hallmarks of Homo sapiens from its ancestors.
Systematic position of a person
Taxon is a classification unit in the taxonomy of plant and animal organisms.
The main evidence of the origin of man from animals is the presence of rudiments and atavisms in his body.
Rudiments are organs that have lost their meaning and function in the process of historical development (evolution) and remain in the form of underdeveloped formations in the body. They are laid even during the development of the embryo, but do not develop. Examples of rudiments in humans can be: coccygeal vertebrae (remnants of the tail skeleton), appendix (appendix of the cecum), body hair; ear muscles (some people may wiggle their ears); third eyelid.
Atavisms are a manifestation, in individual organisms, of characteristics that existed in individual ancestors, but were lost in the course of evolution. In humans, this is the development of the tail and hairline throughout the body.
Historical past of people
The first people on Earth. The name of the ape-man - Pithecanthropus received one of the earliest finds, made in the 19th century in Java.
For a long time, this find was considered a transitional link from monkey to man, the first representatives of the hominid family. These views were promoted by morphological features: a combination of modern-looking bones of the lower limb with a primitive skull and intermediate brain mass. However, the Pithecanthropes of Java are a fairly late group of hominids. From the 1920s to the present, an important discovery was made in southern and East Africa: the remains of bipedal Plio-Pleistocene primates (from 6 to 1 million years old) were found. They marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of paleontology - the reconstruction of these stages of evolution of hominids on the basis of direct paleontological data, and not on the basis of various indirect comparative anatomical and embryological data.
The era of the two-legged ape-men of the Australopithecus. The first Australopithecus of East Africa - zinjanthropus was discovered by the spouses L. and M. Leakey. The most striking feature of Australopithecus is upright posture. This is evidenced by the structure of the pelvis. Walking upright is one of the most ancient human acquisitions.
The first representatives of the human race in East Africa. Along with the massive Australopithecines, other creatures lived in East Africa 2 million years ago. For the first time this became known when, the next year after the discovery of zinjanthropus, the remains of a miniature hominid were found, the brain volume of which was no less (and even more) than that of Australopithecus. It was later revealed that he was a contemporary of the zinjanthropus. The most important discoveries were made in the lowest layer, dating back 2-1.7 million years. Its maximum thickness is 40 meters. The climate, when this layer was laid, was more humid and its inhabitants were zinjanthropus and prezinjanthropus. The latter did not last long. In addition, stones with traces of artificial processing were found in this layer. Most often it was a pebble ranging in size from a walnut to 7–10 cm, with few chips of the working edge. Initially, it was assumed that the zinjanthropes were able to do this, but after new discoveries it became obvious: either the tools were made by a more advanced prezinjanthrop, or both inhabitants were capable of such initial stone processing. The emergence of the clamp with the full opposition of the thumb should have been preceded by a period of dominance of the power grip, when the object was raked in a handful and clamped in the hand. Moreover, it was the nail phalanx of the thumb that experienced especially strong pressure.
Preconditions of anthropogenesis. The common ancestors of great apes and humans were herd narrow-nosed monkeys that lived on trees in tropical forests. The transition of this group to a terrestrial lifestyle, caused by a cooling climate and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright posture. The straightened position of the body and the shift of the center of gravity caused the replacement of the arcuate spinal column by the S-shaped one, which gave it flexibility. A vaulted springy foot was formed, the pelvis expanded, the chest became wider and shorter, the jaw apparatus was lighter, and most importantly, the forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became freer and more diverse, and their functions became more complicated. The transition from using objects to making tools is the line between ape and man. The evolution of the hand followed the path of natural selection of mutations useful for work. Along with upright posture, the most important prerequisite for anthropogenesis was the herd way of life, which, with the development of labor activity and exchange of signals, conditioned the development of articulate speech. Concrete ideas about the surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, thinking and speech abilities were developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.
Stages of human development. There are three stages in human evolution: ancient people, ancient people and modern (new) people. Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker ones.
| Human ancestors | Progressive features in appearance | Lifestyle | Tools |
| Parapitecus (discovered in Egypt in 1911) | We walked on two legs. Low forehead, brow ridges, hairline | Regarded as the oldest great ape | Tools in the form of a club; hewn stones |
| Driopithecus (found bone remains in Western Europe, South Asia and East Africa. Antiquity from 12 to 40 million years) | According to most scientists, Dryopithecus are considered as a common ancestral group for modern apes and humans. | ||
| Australopithecus (bone remains of 2.6-3.5 million years old were found in South and East Africa) | They had a small body (length 120–130 cm), weight 30–40 kg, brain volume - 500–600 cm2, moved on two legs. | They consumed vegetable and meat food, lived in open areas (like savannahs). Australopithecus is also considered as a stage of human evolution that immediately preceded the emergence of the most ancient people (arhantropus). | Sticks, stones, animal bones were used as tools |
| Pithecanthropus (the oldest man, the remains were discovered - Africa, Mediterranean, Java; 1 million years ago) | Height 150 cm; the volume of the brain is 900–1,000 cm2, the forehead is low, with a superciliary ridge; jaw without chin | Social lifestyle; lived in caves, used fire. | Primitive stone tools, sticks |
| Sinanthropus (China and others, 400 thousand years ago) | Height 150-160 cm; brain volume 850–1 220 cm3, low forehead, with a superciliary ridge, no chin protrusion | Lived in herds, built primitive dwellings, used fire, dressed in skins | Tools of stone and bone |
| Neanderthal (ancient man); Europe, Africa, Asia; about 150 thousand years ago | Height 155-165 cm; brain volume 1,400 cm3; few convolutions; the forehead is low, with a superciliary ridge; the chin protrusion is poorly developed | Social lifestyle, construction of hearths and dwellings, use of fire for cooking, dressed in skins. They used gestures and primitive speech for communication. There was a division of labor. The first burials. |
Tools made of wood and stone (knife, scraper, multi-faceted points, etc.) |
| Cro-Magnon - the first modern man (everywhere; 50-60 thousand years ago) | Height up to 180 cm; brain volume - 1 600 cm2; high forehead; convolutions are developed; lower jaw with chin protrusion | Tribal community. Homo sapiens belonged to the species. Settlement construction. The emergence of rituals. The emergence of art, pottery, agriculture. Developed. Developed speech. Domestication of animals, domestication of plants. They had cave paintings. | Various tools made of bone, stone, wood |
Modern people. The emergence of people of the modern physical type occurred relatively recently (about 50 thousand years ago), who were called Cro-Magnons. Increased brain volume (1600 cm3), well-developed articulate speech; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock painting), clothing, jewelry, bone and stone tools of labor, the first tamed animals - all testify to the fact that a real man has finally become isolated from his bestial ancestors. Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern humans form one species - Homo sapiens. Many years passed before people moved from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering) to a producing economy. They learned how to grow plants and tame some animals. In the evolution of Cro-Magnons, social factors were of great importance, the role of education and the transfer of experience grew immeasurably.
Human race
All modern humanity belongs to one species - Homo sapiens. The unity of mankind follows from a common origin, similarity of structure, unlimited crossing of representatives of different races and the fertility of offspring from mixed marriages. Within the species - Homo sapiens - five large races are distinguished: Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Australoid, American. Each of them is divided into small races. The differences between the races are reduced to the peculiarities of the color of the skin, hair, eyes, the shape of the nose, lips, etc. these differences arose in the process of adaptation of human populations to local natural conditions. It is believed that black skin absorbed ultraviolet rays. Narrow eyes protected from harsh sun exposure in open spaces; the wide nose quickly cooled the inhaled air by evaporation from the mucous membranes, on the contrary, the narrow nose warmed the cold inhaled air better, etc.
But man, thanks to work, quickly got out of the influence of natural selection, and these differences quickly lost their adaptive significance.
Human races began to form, they began to form, as it is believed, about 30-40 thousand years ago in the process of human settlement of the Earth, and then many racial characteristics had an adaptive meaning and were fixed by natural selection in a certain geographic environment. All races of man are characterized by the general species characteristics of Homo sapiens, and all races are absolutely equal in biological and mental relations and are at the same level of evolutionary development.
There is no sharp border between the main races, and there are a number of smooth transitions - small races, whose representatives have smoothed or mixed features of the main masses. It is assumed that in the future the differences between races will completely disappear and humanity will be racially homogeneous, but with many morphological variants.
Human races should not be confused with the concepts of nation, people, linguistic group. Different groups can be part of the same nation, and the same races can be part of different nations.
The origin of modern man
The emergence of Homo sapiens was preceded by a long period of development of the organic world of the planet. The origins of the oldest mammals have been traced back to the end of the Mesozoic era. The common ancestor of mammals was primitive insectivores. The unity of origin of primates with other mammals is proved by the biological similarity of the orders of mammals. The order of primates has a multimillion-dollar history of development.
The lower primates include small animals: tupai, lemurs and tarsiers. The great apes include monkeys and humans. The suborder of higher humanoid primates is divided into two groups: broad-nosed monkeys (lower monkeys) and narrow-nosed monkeys (lower monkeys, higher apes, and humans).
The most important in science is the question of the ancestral home of the original form of the human ancestor.
Historically, the hypothesis of the Asian ancestral home was the first to be versatile. In Pakistan and India, numerous finds were made of Middle Miocene hominoids of Sivapithecus (Sivapithecus), which lived about 8-12 million years ago. According to modern concepts, the Asiatic Sivapithecus were the ancestors of only modern orangutans.
Later Asians made the richest African finds of fossil bones. A number of finds of primates living in the Early and Middle Miocene are known from Africa. Their morphology is closest to the modern Pongids and the first Australopithecines.
Fossil hominoids lived not only in Asia and Africa, many great apes inhabited southern Europe in the Miocene.
Of the three possible centers of origin of the original human ancestor, the most complete connection between the Miocene and later hominoids is traced in Africa: Samburupithecus (9.5 million years ago) - Sahelanthropus (6-7 million years ago). There are fairly late Miocene great apes in Asia and Europe, but no very ancient hominids. Thus, Africa is most likely the ancestral home of the hominids.
There are two trends in the theory of the formation of mankind. The classic - monocentrism - speaks of one ancestral home of humanity on the African continent. Supporters of polycentrism argue that there were several independent zones of anthropogenesis, one of which could be located not just in Asia, but even in a zone with extremely harsh climatic conditions.
The scope of the hominid family depends on what traits are used as the basis for determining the place of specific species in the hominoid system. Since the only modern representative of the family is a person, from its features, three most important systems were historically identified, which are considered truly hominid. These systems have been called the hominid triad:
Bipedal walking (bipedia);
A brush adapted for making tools;
Highly developed brain.
The systematic division of hominins is very confusing. In old works, it was customary to distinguish several stages of human evolution - archanthropus, paleoanthropus and neoanthropus. The Archantropians were immediately preceded by the Australopithecines, or, in terms of stages, by the Protantropes. Stage terms are sometimes used in modern literature.
Currently, almost all scientists are inclined to think about the more complex nature of evolution. Some populations were ahead of others in terms of their level of development, and migration or isolation played a significant role in the uneven distribution of progressive signs across the planet. Progressive signs could arise not in a complex, but in different groups independently, later uniting as a result of mixing. This type of evolution is called network evolution.
Thus, the terms "archanthropus", "paleoanthropes" and "neoanthropes" should be regarded only as conditional (but sometimes convenient), combining sometimes very different groups of hominins. The advantage of using them is avoiding the confusing systematic nomenclature, understood differently by different researchers.
By arranging the fossil finds of hominids chronologically, one can get an idea of \u200b\u200bthe stages of human evolution:
- Australopithecus (human precursors);
- Pithecanthropus (ancient people, archanthropus);
- Neanderthals (ancient people, paleoanthropes);
- a person of the modern type (neoanthropes).
It is believed that Australopithecus are descendants of the Ramapithecus descended from Dryopithecus - the most likely human ancestors.
Australopithecines appeared about 6-7 million years ago, and the last of them died out only about 900 thousand years ago, during the existence of much more progressive forms. As far as is known, the Australopithecines never left Africa, although some finds made on the island of Java are sometimes referred to this group.
The complexity of the position of Australopithecines among primates lies in the fact that their structure mosaic combines features characteristic of both modern apes and humans.
The skull of Australopithecus is similar to that of a chimpanzee. Characterized by large jaws, massive bony ridges for the attachment of the masticatory muscles, a small brain and a large flattened face. The teeth of the Australopithecus were very large, but the canines are short, and the details of the structure of the teeth are more similar to humans than those of ape.
The skeleton of Australopithecus is characterized by a wide low pelvis, relatively long legs and short arms, a grasping hand and a lack of grasping foot, and a vertical spine. Such a structure is almost human, the differences are only in the details of the structure and in small sizes.
The lifestyle of the Australopithecines, apparently, was different from that known in modern primates. They lived in tropical forests and savannas, and ate mainly plants. However, the late Australopithecines hunted antelopes or took their prey from large predators - lions and hyenas. Australopithecus lived in groups of several individuals and, apparently, constantly wandered across the expanses of Africa in search of food. The tools of the Australopithecus were hardly able to make, although they used them for sure.
The remains of Pithecanthropus - the earliest representatives of humans or Homo erectus (Man erect, erect) - are widespread in Asia, Africa and Europe.
Pithecanthropus were people who were practically modern in skeletal structure, but their skulls were significantly different from modern ones. Huge jaws, overhanging superciliary arches, sloping forehead and nape protruding back are very characteristic physiognomic features of archantropians. The walls of the skull were very thick, reaching 2 cm in thickness in some individuals. The brains of the archantropists continued to progressively change. The frontal lobe grew, the role of the temporal lobe increased. Its volume ranged from 700-1100 cm3. The arm had a completely modern structure. Approximately by the time of 1-1.5 million years ago, tools are being improved so much that they are already referred to a new archaeological culture - the Acheulean. A typical tool of the Acheulean culture is a heavy hand ax, with a rough cutting edge. In addition to stone tools, archanthropus also made wooden spears, occasionally found in the peat bogs of Europe.
The period of existence of the archantropists is important in the sense that it was then that the foundations of modern human society were laid. Perhaps the appearance of speech belongs to this time, which can be judged by the casts of the brain. At this time, people began to hunt large dangerous animals, which undoubtedly required the coordination of the team and the complication of communication. At the same time, people became familiar with fire and the first resettlement from tropical zones to subtropical ones. Obviously, the size of the archantropic groups increased, and the population of the Earth as a whole grew. Archanthropus knew how to build primitive dwellings.
Among the archantropians there were some kind of specialized groups that did not leave descendants, while others evolved further. Sometimes many species are distinguished among them. Apparently, there were at least two main branches of the Archantropians - Western, or Afro-European and Eastern, or Asian.
The Hominins of the period from about 500 to 35 thousand years ago are referred to as paleoanthropines or "archaic sapiens". They are systematically subdivided into "Heidelberg Man" and Neanderthals.
The biological evolution of hominins continued in the direction of a decrease in the massiveness of the skull and an increase in the volume and complexity of the brain structure. It is essential that the volume of the brain grew faster than the structure developed and the shape changed. In some representatives of paleoanthropes, brain sizes reached modern values; in general, the scope of the brain volume reached 1000-1700 cm3.
According to the increasing complexity of the structure of the brain, the behavior of people also became more complicated. While the early paleoanthropes used the Acheulean stone-working technique, later ones perfected it. About 200 thousand years ago, the Mousterian technique appeared - more advanced and economical. The typical tools of the Mousterian era are the point and the side-scraper. The cultural difference between territorial groups of people increased. In Asia, primitive methods of stone processing remained for a long time. In Europe, the Mousterian technique reached its peak and markedly specialized. African cultures were especially progressive. So, in Africa, the traditions of bone processing and the use of ocher, possibly for ritual purposes, appeared very early.
Paleoanthropes, like their ancestors, continued to migrate across the planet. Getting into new environmental conditions, people learned to cope with various natural difficulties. Apparently, the appearance of clothing dates back to this time. The ways of building dwellings improved, people actively settled in caves, driving out large predators from there - bears, lions and hyenas. The methods of hunting animals have improved noticeably, as evidenced by the numerous remains of bones at the sites. European Neanderthals were, in fact, the main predators of their time. However, there is also evidence of cannibalism among paleoanthropists.
Important changes took place in the psyche of ancient people. Symbolic activity arose. Its first examples cannot even be called art: these are pits in stones, stripes carved on limestone, bones and pieces of ocher. However, such non-utilitarian activity testifies to a significant complication of the mental processes of paleoanthropes.
Even more significant is the archaeological evidence for the ritual practice of the Neanderthals. The first burials of the dead are the most important evidence of the high level of psyche of the Neanderthals. The most ancient of them date back to about 100 thousand years ago. Probably, at the same time, the first ideas about the afterlife appeared.
Outwardly, paleoanthropes were very different. They had a huge brow and a high face, a wide nose, a heavy lower jaw with a sloping chin, and a sloping forehead. The nape of many paleoanthropes protruded strongly backward. However, all these signs were not as pronounced as among the archantropians. Late paleoanthropes, attributed to Neanderthals, had a number of specific features, for example, a very strongly protruding wide face with sloping cheekbones. Many signs of European Neanderthals could have arisen under the influence of the harshest conditions of the Ice Age about 60 thousand years ago. The physique of the Neanderthals was very stocky, the legs were relatively short, the chest was barrel-shaped, the shoulders were very wide.
Sapientation is the process of the emergence of the modern human species Homo sapiens sapiens, which consists both in biological restructuring - an increase in the brain, rounding of the skull, a decrease in the size of the face, the appearance of a chin ridge - and in socio-cultural innovations - the emergence of art, symbolic behavior, technical progress, and the development of languages.
In several African localities dating from 200 to 100 thousand years ago, bones of people were found that did not have a strongly protruding occiput, a large brow ridge and had a very large brain and a protruding chin. Similar finds have been made in the Middle East. Since about 40 thousand years ago, people of a completely modern appearance, only slightly more massive modern ones - neoanthropes - are known from almost the entire territory of the ecumene - from Africa, Europe, Asia and Australia. Only America may have been settled a little later.
The population of Europe, belonging to the modern species, who lived in the Upper Paleolithic era - from 40 to 10 thousand years ago - is called Cro-Magnons. Note that Cro-Magnons in Europe have coexisted with Neanderthals for 5 thousand years in a row. They differed among themselves not only in terms of physical structure.
Homo sapiens
The Cro-Magnons had a much more advanced culture. The technique of making tools has grown immeasurably. They began to be made from plates - specially prepared blanks, which made it possible to manufacture much more elegant tools than Mousterian points. Cro-Magnons also widely used animal bones for making tools. The technical equipment of people has grown - a bow and arrows have appeared.
The most significant phenomenon is the flourishing of Upper Paleolithic art. In the caves of France, Spain and Italy, excellent examples of rock art have been preserved; in the layers of the sites from Brittany to Lake Baikal, figurines of people and animals made of bones and limestone were found. The handles of knives and spear throwers were decorated with intricate carvings. Clothes were decorated with beads and painted with ocher.
Human settlements of the Upper Paleolithic usually consisted of regularly visited hunting grounds. Here dwellings were built, the life of society went on, rituals were performed, the dead were buried. In the Upper Paleolithic era, man tamed the wolf, turning it into a dog. So man himself began to actively influence the process of speciation in animals.
Regarding the fate of the Neanderthals, it was previously believed that they evolved into people of the modern type, one stage passed into another. Now this option seems almost incredible - the differences in structure and culture are too great, and the coexistence of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons has already been proven.
Some scholars believe that an immeasurably higher level of technical equipment and social organization helped the Cro-Magnons in the struggle for territory. In addition, the mixing of some groups of the first neoanthropes and late Neanderthals is not at all excluded. Probably, it was precisely such a mixture of genes and cultures that helped the first neoanthropes to quickly adapt to completely new natural conditions for them.
So, according to paleontological data, the line of predecessors leading to humans split from the line of modern apes about 4-8 million years ago. In science there are many mutually exclusive opinions about the causes, time and place of the emergence of modern man. There were a huge number of predecessors of modern man, not all of whom were our ancestors. They can be divided into stages or groups can be distinguished according to biological taxonomy: Archanthropus, Paleoanthropus and Neoanthropus. Along with biological evolution, there was social evolution, reconstructed, in particular, by the methods of archeology.
According to the most reasoned point of view, a person of modern appearance and behavior arose in Africa or the Middle East from 100 to 40 thousand years ago. Since about 35 thousand years on Earth, there is only a modern species of man, which has spread throughout the planet.
Aspects of the decision-making process
Cell theory, mineral metabolism
The pharynx, esophagus and stomach in the human digestive system
Aging process
Water-salt metabolism in humans
Differences between human activity and animal behavior
Human heredity
Second signaling system
The mechanism of urine formation in the kidneys
Development of the brain in ontogenesis
The role and function of human skin
The link between environmental problems and health
The emergence of modern humans: the time and place of human origin. Basic hypotheses.
The earliest remains of modern humans are found in Africa. Homo sapiens appeared here about 130-100 thousand years ago. There is still controversy about the origin of Homo sapiens in anthropology. Proponents of the theory of monocentrism associate the origin of Homo sapiens with one region. Their opponents - adherents of polycentrism - say that Homo sapiens appeared simultaneously in several regions of the Earth.
- hypothesis of monocentrism (hypothesis of the African ancestral home). It was from Africa, according to this version, that Homo sapiens crossed Gibraltar and Western Asia about 100 thousand years ago to Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Another route of settlement ran to Southeast Asia. About 50 thousand years ago, Homo sapiens settled in Australia. It penetrated to America about 25-30 thousand years ago.
- hypothesis of polycentrism, first put forward by the American anthropologist Franz Weidenreich (1873-1948), distinguishes four centers of the formation of a modern type of man and, accordingly, his races: Southeast Asia (Australoids), South Africa (Negroids), East Asia (Mongoloids) and Western Asia (Caucasians) ... Nowadays, the multi-regional hypothesis is more widespread - it proceeds from the fact that Homo erectus settled from Africa and then arose - simultaneously in several centers - modern man.
Neoanthropes
- the generalized name of modern humans who replaced all their predecessors in the period 40-30 thousand years ago.
Homo sapiens were actively populating our planet 40-38 thousand years ago.
Human evolution
The earliest representatives of modern man in Europe and partly outside of it are Cro-Magnons (fr. Homme de Cro-Magnon) who lived 40-10 thousand years ago (Upper Paleolithic period). The name comes from the Cro-Magnon grotto in France, where several human skeletons were discovered in 1868, along with tools from the late Paleolithic. The most important fossil finds: in Africa - Cape Flats, Fish Hook, Nazlet Hater; in Europe - Komb Capell, Mladech, Cro-Magnon, in Russia - Sungir, in Ukraine - Mezhirech. The volume of the brain is 1200-1500 cm³. Height is about 180 cm. Flattened, high, almost vertical forehead. The superciliary arches are reduced.
24. Acceleration. Morphological, physiological and mental manifestation of acceleration. Basic acceleration hypotheses.
ACCELERATION - acceleration of growth and physical development of children in comparison with previous generations. For the first time, such phenomena were noted in the middle of the 19th century. When comparing the results of anthropometric surveys conducted at the beginning of the XX century, with the data of the 30s. XIX century. it was found that the acceleration process covered the population of all economically developed countries.
Signs of acceleration are noted already at the stage of intrauterine development. So, over the past 70-80 years, the body length of a newborn has increased by an average of 1 cm, weight - by 100-300 g. Significant changes in the rates of growth and development are observed in infants: a doubling of body weight, which occurred earlier between the 5th and 6th month of life, now observed at 4 months; the baby's chest circumference becomes larger than the head circumference not at 6 months, but at 2-5 months. Children begin to hold their heads earlier, in more early age their fontanel is overgrown and milk teeth erupt. With age, the rate of acceleration increases: the body length of 4-7-year-old children for each decade increases on average by 1.5 cm, body weight - by 0.5 kg.
Observations show that no significant differences in the rates of acceleration of children of different nationalities were found. Urban children are subject to acceleration to a slightly greater extent than rural children.
In the 1980s. there is a slowdown in the rate of acceleration, which indicates a relative stabilization of the rate of development of children born at the end of the 20th century.
There are a number of hypotheses designed to explain the causes of acceleration, but none of them is considered exhaustive. Probably, the acceleration of development occurs under the influence of a whole complex of socio-economic and natural living conditions - improved nutrition; genetic changes as a result of the intensification of the processes of migration and mixing of the population; an increase in the intensity of external stimuli that stimulate the nervous system, etc. (individual factors and conditions are difficult to accurately account and estimate).
There is evidence of the so-called psychological acceleration, i.e. accelerating the mental development of children. However, in the opinion of the majority of experts, these data rather indicate a previously underestimated child's intellectual capabilities. It is shown that the creation of favorable stimulating conditions and the use of special techniques for the development of perception, attention, speech, etc. contributes to a fuller realization of the child's capabilities. Psychologists, however, warn against "artificial acceleration", when intellectual development is overly intensified, placing excessive demands on the child. A reliable indicator of the correspondence of the developmental influences to the child's capabilities is his emotional stability, his readiness to accept new stimuli and tasks with enthusiasm.
A rapid increase in body length and weight is not an unambiguous indicator of physiological and mental development. Distinguish between passport (chronological) and biological age, which characterizes the actual development of the child. For some children, these ages coincide, however, most children of the same passport age are at different stages of biological development. Moreover, children of small stature can mature according to their biological age, and, conversely, with high growth, the infantilism of physical development can be preserved. There is also acceleration within one generation. Within one age group, there are about 8% of children characterized by accelerated development, and about the same number of children who are characterized by some delay in physical development.
In general, acceleration is a statistical pattern. For each individual child, its manifestations have their own individual characteristics, which should not be regarded as advantages or disadvantages.
1. Heliogenic hypothesis suggests that the main reason for the acceleration is an increase in the level of insolation (sun exposure), including ultraviolet, which modern children are exposed to. According to E. Koch, who was the first to express such an assumption, ultraviolet radiation, activating all the processes occurring in the body, including the formation of vitamin D, contributes to the acceleration of growth.
The beneficial effect of solar radiation on a growing organism is well known, but there are facts that do not fit into this hypothesis. For example, it was noted that the rate of acceleration among residents of northern latitudes is as significant as in the southern regions of the globe. In some mountainous areas (Tien Shan, Pamir, Altai), children grow up somewhat slower than their peers from flat areas, despite the fact that the level of insolation in high mountain areas is higher. Contradicting the heliogenic hypothesis is the fact that children living in rural areas grow and develop on average more slowly than their peers in cities.
2. The next in time of appearance and the first in the number of supporters is alimentary (literally - nutritious) theory... Some adherents of this theory associate acceleration with an increase in the consumption of proteins and fats of animal origin, others - milk and vitamins, especially in the first months of a child's life.
Despite the known anabolic effects of a high-protein diet, this hypothesis has weaknesses. So, in some countries, for example, in Japan, the population traditionally receives significantly less protein of animal origin than in Europe, but the pace of acceleration of Japanese children is very high. The connection between acceleration and vitaminization of the diet is also doubtful, since the synthesis and industrial production of vitamins have been carried out over the past 20–30 years, and the process of acceleration has been observed for over 100 years.
3. Urbanization hypothesis... Its supporters believe that the accelerated pace of city life, an increase in mental load due to additional sources of information (radio, television, newspapers and books), street noise and other factors have an exciting effect on the central nervous system of children, activate its somatotropic function. The urbanization hypothesis partly explains the higher rates of acceleration in cities, but does not fully reveal the cause of the phenomenon itself.
4. Contamination and mutagenic hypotheses... Proponents of these hypotheses believe that the main reason for the acceleration is the pollution (contamination) of the human environment with industrial waste, which has mutagenic properties and therefore gives a biostimulating heterosis-like effect. The products of oil, coal and gas processing, an increased level of radiation exceeding the natural modern background by 20–70 times, radio wave pollution and others are called causal agents.
5. Genetic hypothesis... Its supporters see the reason for the acceleration in the genetic effect associated with the conclusion of marriages between people who formerly lived in remote settlements. Industrialization and the massive movement of the young part of the population to cities have led to an increase in the number of heterolocal marriages (marriages between people from different places), to population mixing and an effect similar to heterosis. The phenomenon of heterosis has been well studied in animals. It consists in the phenomenon of the superiority of the first generation hybrids in a number of characteristics over the best of the parental forms. Studies have shown that with an increase in the distance between the motherland of the father and mother, the indicators of physical development in children increase, and maturation accelerates.
6. Hypothesis of cyclical growth and development rates children and adolescents depending on the cycles of solar activity. Analyzing the anthropological indicators of the population in different epochs, as well as the results of morphological studies of some animal species, scientists noted that periods of increase and decrease in the rate of development were observed, obviously, in earlier times, but their intensity was less pronounced. Based on this, an assumption is made about the phasing of this process and a gradual slowdown in the rate of acceleration is predicted *.
Concluding the conversation about acceleration, it should be noted that it is not only of scientific interest. Its study allowed us to conclude that in children who are ahead of their peers in physical development, disharmonious states are more often observed, which are risk factors for the occurrence of various diseases. These diseases include postural disorders, myopia, autonomic disorders, obesity, heart, lung and kidney disease. In addition to these medical consequences, acceleration also has psychological consequences associated with the discrepancy between the degree of physical, functional development and social status of the adolescent.
At one time, Ernst Haeckel, an energetic propagandist of Darwinism, built a scheme of human evolution, consisting of 22 stages. But gradually it became clear that almost none of them correspond to reality. Meanwhile, since the end of the last century, anthropology has left the sphere of arbitrary fortune-telling and embarked on an active search for the fossil human ancestor. It was especially tempting to find the so-called "missing link" that would connect man and monkey.
At first, the excavation seemed to bring what was expected of them. In 1892 on about. Java E. Dubois found the bones of a creature that was dubbed "upright monkey-man" - Pitecantropus Erektus (See the article by E. Dubois about the discovery of Pithecanthropus in the collection "Evolution of Man". Moscow, 1924). In 1911, fragments of a skull and jaw with clearly ape features were found in England. They were declared to belong to the "Man of Dawn", eoanthropus. In 1924, in Africa, R. Dart discovered the skull of a monkey with features that bring it closer to humans. It was called the "southern monkey", Australopithecus (Dart R.A. Australopithecus africanus. The Man Ape of South Africa. - Nature. Februari, 7. P. 191). And finally, in 1927 in China, near Beijing, the skull and bones of a creature very similar to the Pithecanthropus called Sinanthropus were found (Teilhard de Chardin P. La decouverte du Sinantrope. - Etudes. July 5, 1937. see also: Py-kan W., Shanlon L. Peking man. - "In the world of science." 1983. N 8). In addition, fossilized bones of creatures very close to humans have already been found in Europe before. They received the name "primitive people", or Neanderthals, after the place where the remains of this creature were first discovered (See collection: Fossil hominids and the origin of man. M., 1966).
These findings, as well as a number of others, enabled the proponents of slow evolution to recreate the "path from monkey to man." Indeed, the scheme based on these findings attracts with its simplicity and persuasiveness. According to this scheme, development gradually proceeds from the ancient monkey to Australopithecus, from him to Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus, and from them the line stretches to the Eoanthropus and Neanderthal - the ancestors of modern humans. Gradually, however, this scheme began to raise serious doubts and the question of the human ancestor turned out to be immeasurably more complicated than previously thought.
Eoanthropus has long instilled doubt in its antiquity and, at last, dropped out of our lineage under the most unexpected circumstances. As it turned out, he simply turned out to be a fake, fabricated from the bones of a person and chimpanzee. Thus, the scientific world for 40 years has been a victim of deliberate deception (see: Jlupuwe V. I. Garden of Eden. M., 1981, p. 81).
Further: new finds of australopithecines (paranthropus, plesianthropus, etc.) showed that these were monkeys that inhabited Africa in large numbers, but their "human" features were clearly exaggerated. The fact is that the first find belonged to a calf. And as you know, baby apes have features that bring them closer to humans. This feature indicates that the ancestors of the monkeys were more "humanoid". Modern anthropoids have gone far from the main trunk of human development. They developed large jaws, powerful fangs, and even a crest on the skull, which strengthened their chewing muscles, like those of predators. When the skulls of adult australopithecines were found, it turned out that although they had not yet developed canines, as in modern gorillas, they had powerful jaws, not inferior to those of a gorilla and an orangutan. The calf's skull, found in 1924, was the same witness to more "human" ancestors, as well as the skulls of the young of modern anthropoids.
"Numerous objections of a morphological, zoogeographic, geological and general biological order," writes the Soviet anthropologist Yakimov, "do not allow the recognition of direct human ancestors in the South African Australopithecines, which, in their further development, gave rise to early forms of hominids" (Yakimov V.P. Early stages of anthropogenesis. - In collection: Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography. T. XVI. 1951. P. 33).
In 1960, anthropologist Louis Leakey made a sensational statement around the world that he had discovered a human ancestor. In East Africa, in the Oldway Gorge, Leakey found fragments of the bones of a primate, which he named Zinjanthropus. However, it was soon established that the zinjanthropus was nothing more than one of the forms of the Australopithecus monkey, close to the gorilla (Kraus B.S. The Basis of Human Evolution. 1964. P. 240). Soon Leakey made another discovery. He found the bones of a more progressive form, which he called the pre-zinjanthropus, or Homo Habilis. In some respects, the pre-Zinjanthropus was more primitive than the Australopithecines. This gave Louis Leakey reason to consider him a member of the direct lineage of man, especially since the first dating indicated that this find is more than one and a half million years old (Leakey L. At 1,750,000 years into the past of man. - In: Science and Humanity. M " 1963. P. 85) Until now, the find and its age are the subject of lively discussion, and there is still no definitive evidence whether the pre-Zinjanthropus could have been our direct ancestor (See: Reshetiv Yu. G. Nature of the Earth and the origin of man. M., 1966, p. 213 a.).
Recently, the finds of Louis Leakey's son, Robert Leakey, have aroused great interest. On the shores of Lake Rudolph in Africa, he discovered the bones of humanoid creatures, the life of which the scientist attributed to the second million years before our time (see: Leakey R. E. Further Evidence of Lower Pleistocene Hominids from East Rudolf, North Kenya.-Nature. V 231. 1971; The emergence of human society. Paleolithic Africa. M., 1977, p. 24 letters; Go M. The missing link / Translated from English. M., 1977. p. 67 f.; Hours F. Dieu crea l'hommea Son image - "Le monde de la Bible" 1979 WS P. 42-48).
But the most sensational was the find of Donald Johanson in Hadera (Ethiopia). There, in 1974, an almost complete skeleton of a female was found, similar in type to the Australopithecines. "Lucy" (as Johanson dubbed this creature) had an upright gait, was distinguished by a rather slender physique with a height of about a meter, but her skull wore quite ape features. Scientists have dated the find at 3-3.5 million years. It is likely that "Lucy" gives us an idea of \u200b\u200bthose biological forms that gave rise to the genus Homo (See: D. Johanson, Go M. Lucy. The origin of the human race. M "1984).
As for a real person, until very recently it was believed that his antiquity does not exceed 50 - 40 thousand years. However, recent studies by the French physicist A. Villade (1988) helped to establish that the age of the oldest finds of Homo Sapiens reaches 100-130 thousand years. Most of them are found in East Africa. An exception is the skull from the Jebel Qafzeh cave near Nazareth, a city well known in biblical history.
Biomolecular analysis of representatives of various modern races of the Old World, carried out by scientists from the United States and Japan, showed that all these races originate from a single genetic root and most likely from Africa.
The closest relative of Homo Sapiens among the currently known fossil forms is the Neanderthal. This species was extremely widespread in Europe, Asia and Africa. The study of the Neanderthals has revealed one remarkable feature. The early forms of Neanderthals, which preceded the classical ones in time, turned out to be morphologically closer to Homo Sapiens (Kraus V. Op.
The emergence of modern humans
cit. P. 243). These early forms include the skulls found in Steinheim, Svanscombe and Fonteschevade (See: M. Gerasimov People of the Stone Age. M., 1964, p. 47 ate). These forms are conventionally called "presapient", that is, preceding the real person. The classical Neanderthals, in the general opinion of anthropologists, could not have been our ancestors. This is a very specialized species, stopped in its development, and, unlike the "presapiens", in many respects adjoins the lower monkeys, despite its "human" appearance. Studies of the brain cavities of Neanderthal skulls showed that these creatures had underdeveloped frontal regions, which are directly related to the control of emotions. "The defeat of the orbital parts of the frontal region in a person can lead to drastic changes in his character, to a violation of the social structure of the personality, to manifestations of unbridled rage, etc." (Roginsky Ya.Ya. Problems of anthropogenesis. M., 1977. S. 197). Consequently, the psychology of the Neanderthal was characterized by unbridled aggressiveness, and his intelligence was significantly lower than that of a human.
Nevertheless, some groups of Neanderthals had rudimentary art (See.
a. Chernysh's message about this discovery in the book: At the origins of creativity. Novosibirsk, 1979), therefore, some researchers tend to consider Neanderthals not as precursors of humans, but as one of the primitive human races.
Thus, the abundance of finds did not clarify the picture, but rather complicated it. The species that could be recognized as the direct ancestor of man is still unknown. The finds mainly speak of creatures that represented lateral branches of development, deadlocked and, perhaps, unable to withstand competition with humans.
Some scientists believe that in inaccessible areas and still could have survived a few copies of these "cousins" of man, these fruits of a failed attempt to humanize. All information about the so-called "Bigfoot" and other similar creatures (basically, apparently, reliable) allow us to assume that in appearance and behavior they differ little from modern anthropoids (See: R. Izzard. Following the footsteps of Bigfoot. M ., 1960; as well as a number of articles on this issue in periodicals).
The question arises, when chronologically the Great Moment came and anthropogenesis took place? About 9 million years ago, Australopithecines appeared on Earth, about 3 million years ago - Habilis, and later - Archanthropus. Early forms of Neanderthals existed at the same time as Archanthropus. The heyday of Neanderthals spans between 300 and 40 millennia BC.
It is believed that a real person first appeared about 100 thousand years ago. Thus, in comparison with 9 million years of existence of animals close to humans, the era of Homo Sapiens seems negligible. It was truly a "sudden leap".
The difficulties associated with solving the problem of our biological ancestor gave rise to many hypotheses of anthropogenesis. Suffice it to mention the theory of Hermann Klaach (1922), who, on the basis of comparative anatomical data, denied a close connection between humans and anthropoids and who derived our lineage from a special primate trunk; the theory of F. Wood Jones (1929), who considered the Tertiary tarsier our ancestor; the theory of Henry Osborne, who, like Klaach, denies the origin of man from ape-like ancestors; Franz Weidenreich (1947) links our family tree to a special group of giant primates. According to Robert Broome, "the human line goes through the tarsiers and primitive non-specialized anthropoids to some ape-like men", which laid the foundation for the hominid family (1947). The latter theory is currently the most successful.
A number of researchers, including Soviet ones, believe that a person arose from several (at least two) genetic stems. However, serious objections are raised against this theory of polygenism. The majority of modern anthropologists therefore take the position of monogenism, which considers Homo Sapiens as a single species that arose from a single root (See: Roginsky Ya. Ya. Problems of Anthropogenesis. P. 141 f.).
How did Christians view the theory of human origins? Initially, the teaching that "man descended from ape" shocked many. Undeserved contempt for monkeys made this seem shameful. A whole storm broke out (fortunately, short). At the famous Oxford debate, Bishop Wilberforce ironically asked the defender of Darwinism Huxley: in what line does he consider himself a descendant of a monkey - through the line of grandparents? Huxley replied in a tone that he prefers to come from a monkey than from a person who pokes his nose into something he does not understand. Pastor Sedgwick, a naturalist, teacher of Darwin, signed his letter to him with these words: "In the past your friend, now - one of the descendants of a monkey." But soon the passions began to subside. The problem that Wallace had already put forward made one think about whether the human spirit can have a natural origin. Some defenders of the literal understanding of the Bible wanted at all costs to consider the "dust of the earth" of Genesis as necessarily clay.
But the more reasonable admitted that, in the words of A. Tolstoy, "the shmatina clay is no more noble than the orangutan."
Gradually they began to understand that there was a misunderstanding. "The conviction that a person has the same natural origin as other living beings, just as can not be to the detriment of religion, as the doctrine of the rotation of the Earth" (Klaach G. Origin and development of the human race. P. 364).
This idea was expressed publicly by Erich Wasmann, a famous Austrian zoologist who has authored hundreds of scientific papers. Back in 1906, he gave a series of lectures on the origin of man, which attracted great attention of the Christian intelligentsia. In them, he showed that the biblical teaching does not exclude the evolutionary origin of the human body (Vasman E. Christianity and the theory of development. Pg., 1917. S. 24). Vasman's point of view was soon shared by many scientists, including those far from Christianity. Thus, the neo-Darwinist August Weismann argued that religion in these matters cannot contradict science.
As a result, many Christian scientists began to study the problem of paleoanthropology. Among them, the first place is occupied by Henri Breuil, Hugo Obermeier and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. The ecclesiastical point of view on this issue was reflected in the encyclical of Pope Pius XII "Humani generis" - "On the human race", which says that the Church recommends the study of evolutionary theory "to the extent that research speaks about the origin of the human body (Discharge mine.- AM) from already existing living matter, but adhere to the fact that souls are directly created by God. " (For this encyclical see: "Antonianum", January-April 1958.)
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27 How man appeared on Earth
191. Consider the drawing. Indicate the similarities and differences between humans and great apes.
- Answer: Five-fingered limbs, broad shoulders, similarity of the auricle, general external similarity.
192. Write down the names of the ancestors of modern man in the order of their appearance on Earth.
1) Driopithecus
2) Australopithecus
3) Man-skillful
4) Homo erectus
5) Neanderthal
6) Cro-Magnon
193. Review the drawing and label the names of the person's ancestors.
194. Using the material of the textbook, fill in the table "Ancestors of modern man".
-
Ancestor Features of the external structure Abilities Driopithecus More like a modern monkey No distinctive Australopithecus First erect Used items found as weapons Skillful man Changed skull, straighter back Started making primitive tools, building huts, using fire Homo erectus He was larger than his ancestor, had a developed brain Used fire and made weapons to perfection Neanderthal Large head, massive eyebrows, medium height They sewed clothes, insulated huts, had speech Cro-Magnon Very similar to modern man We knew how to draw, the first pet appeared
195. Answer the question.
Which of the human ancestors first had articulate speech?
- Answer: Homo sapiens (Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon)
196. Using additional sources of information, prepare a message about one of the human ancestors. Write down a message plan.
Who are we, descendants of monkeys or the most ancient inhabitants of the planet?
Indicate the source of the information used.
1) Appearance
2) Cro-Magnon classes
3) hunting the first pet
4) Drawings of Cro-Magnons
5) Speech and reasoning
197. Insert the missing letters.
- Answer: Austral ABOUTpitek, dri ABOUTp ANDtech, n Eonde Rtalc, to Roman Bend.
Make 2 - 3 sentences with these words.
- Answer Monkeys and humans have a common ancestor - driopithecus.From him came australopithecus,later, the intelligent man who gave life to the species.
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